<p>Longs Peak is a high and prominent mountain summit in the northern Front Range of the Rocky Mountains of North America. The 4,346 m fourteener is located in the Rocky Mountain National Park Wilderness, 15.5 km southwest by south  of the Town of Estes Park, Colorado, United States. Longs Peak is the northernmost fourteener in the Rocky Mountains and the highest point in Boulder County and Rocky Mountain National Park. The mountain was named in honor of explorer Stephen Harriman Long and is featured on the Colorado state quarter.</p><br>
<h2>Mountain</h2><br>
<p>Longs Peak can be prominently seen from Longmont, Colorado, as well as from most of the northern Front Range Urban Corridor. Longs Peak is one of the most prominent mountains in Colorado, rising 9,000 ft above the western edge of the Great Plains.</p><br>
<p>The peak is named for Major Stephen Long, who is said to be the first to spot the great mountains on behalf of the USA Government on June 30, 1820.</p><br>
<p>Together with the nearby Mount Meeker, with an elevation of 13,911 feet, the two are sometimes referred to as the Twin Peaks (not to be confused with a nearby lower mountain called Twin Sisters).</p><br>
<h2>History of ascents</h2><br>
<p>As the only fourteener in Rocky Mountain National Park, the peak has long been of interest to climbers. The easiest route is not "technical" during the summer season. It was probably first used by pre-Columbian indigenous people collecting eagle feathers.</p><br>
<p>The first recorded ascent was in August 23, 1868 by the surveying party of John Wesley Powell via the south side. (so-named because of its shape, approximately that of a cut diamond seen from the side and inverted - see image at right). Another famous profile belongs to Longs Peak: to the southeast of the summit is a series of rises which, when viewed from the northeast, resembles a beaver. The photo shows the beaver climbing the south (left side) of the mountain.</p><br>
<p>In 1954 the first proposal made to the National Park Service to climb The Diamond was met with an official closure, a stance not changed until 1960. The Diamond was first ascended by Dave Rearick and Bob Kamps that year, by a route that would come to be known simply as D1. This route would later be listed in Allen Steck and Steve Roper&#39;s influential book Fifty Classic Climbs of North America. The easiest route on the face is the Casual Route (5.10a), first climbed in 1977. It has since become the most popular route up the wall.</p><br>
<p>The oldest person to summit Longs Peak was Rev. William "Col. Billy" Butler, who climbed it on September 2, 1926, his 85th birthday. In 1932, Clerin “Zumie” Zumwalt summited Longs Peak 53 times.</p><br>
<p>On June 6, 2016, a group of US Special Forces were rescued after members of the team suffered from altitude sickness.</p><br>
<h2>Mills Glacier</h2><br>
<p>Longs Peak has one remaining glacier named Mills Glacier. The glacier is located around 12,800 feet (3,900 m) at the base of the Eastern Face, just above Chasm Lake. A permanent snowfield, called The Dove, is located north of Longs Peak. Longs Peak is one of fewer than 50 mountains in Colorado that have a glacier.</p><br>
<h2>Hiking Longs Peak</h2><br>
<p>Trails that ascend Longs Peak include the East Longs Peak Trail, the Longs Peak Trail, the Keyhole Route, Clark&#39;s Arrow and the Shelf Trail. Only some technical climbing is required to reach the summit of Longs Peak during the summer season, which typically runs from mid July through early September. Outside of this window the popular "Keyhole" route is still open; however, its rating is upgraded to all "technical" as treacherous ice formation and snow fall necessitates the use of specialized climbing equipment including, at a minimum, crampons and an ice axe. It is one of the most difficult Class 3 fourteener scrambles in Colorado.</p><br>
<p>The hike from the trailhead to the summit is 8.4 miles (13.5 km) each way, with a total elevation gain of 4,875 feet. Most hikers begin before dawn in order to reach the summit and return below the tree line before frequent afternoon thunderstorms bring a risk of lightning strikes. The most difficult portion of the hike begins at the Boulder Field, 6.4 miles (10 km) into the hike. After scrambling over the boulders, hikers reach the Keyhole at 6.7 miles (10.5 km).</p><br>
<p>The following quarter of a mile involves a scramble along narrow ledges, many of which may have nearly sheer cliffs of 1,000 feet (305 m) or more just off the edge. The next portion of the hike includes climbing over 600 vertical feet (183 m) up the Trough before reaching the most exposed section of the hike, the Narrows. Just beyond the Narrows, the Notch signifies the beginning of the Homestretch, a steep climb to the football field-sized, flat summit. It is possible to camp out overnight in the Boulder Field (permit required) which makes for a less arduous two-day hike, although this is fairly exposed to the elements. Fifty-eight people have died climbing or hiking Longs Peak. According to the National Park Service, two people, on average, die every year attempting to climb the mountain. Less experienced mountaineers are encouraged to use a guide for this summit to mitigate risk and increase the probability of a summit.</p><br>
<p>For hikers who do not wish to climb to the summit, there are less-involved hikes on the peak as well. Peacock Pool and Chasm Lake are popular hiking destinations and follow well-maintained trails. It is also rewarding to hike just to the Boulder Field, the Keyhole, or the seldom-visited Chasm View—the ridge between Mount Lady Washington and the east face of Longs Peak. Camping is available at the Boulder Field and also on the lower portions of the mountain, such as Goblin&#39;s Forest next to the stream at the bottom. Technical climbers, with the correct permit, are allowed to use sites at the base of the East Face and at Chasm View. It is also possible to camp to the south of the mountain at Sand Beach Lake.</p><br>
<h2>Climbing Longs Peak</h2><br>
<p>In addition to the standard "Keyhole" route, there are more serious and more technical climbs on Longs Peak. Climbers should seek qualified instruction; deaths on Longs Peak are an annual occurrence. Some of the more common routes are, in approximate order of popularity,</p><br>
<p>North Face Cables route: This follows the Keyhole route to the Boulder Field, then ascends the North Face of the peak. It requires one or two pitches of low-5th class climbing, and is often downclimbed or rappelled by technical climbers since it is one of the fastest ways to ascend or descend the peak. In the early 20th century, enterprising guides installed a series of large steel eye bolts along this route, connecting them with a steel cable similar to systems in the Alps. The cables were removed in 1973 due to concerns about their appropriateness, but several of the bolts remain and are used as rappel anchors.</p><br>
<p>Kieners Route: A traditional mountaineering climb that involves a climb of Lambs Slide (named after Reverend Elkanah Lamb who unintentionally slid down much of the route in 1871), which is icy later in the season, then an exposed traverse of the Broadway ledge, and then low-5th class climbing.</p><br>
<p>via the Loft: The Loft is the semi-permanent snowfield between Longs Peak and its south-eastern neighbor Mt. Meeker. The saddle provides access to either peak. One such traverse route is Gorrell&#39;s Traverse. It is also possible to ascend to the saddle via Lambs Slide.</p><br>
<p>via the East Face: The East Face is the steep, 1,000 + foot (305 + m) wall that includes the Diamond and the Lower East Face. All climbs here are technical, from 5.10 to 5.13. It is also possible to ascend to the (climber&#39;s) left of the Diamond face proper. The routes on the right side of the Diamond are often aid climbed, and may require spending the night on the wall; the rock here can be very wet. Routes on the left side of the Diamond are usually free climbed. Only qualified climbers should attempt climbs on this face, and should take into consideration the effects of altitude and alpine conditions in addition to the difficulty rating.</p><br>
<p>via the Notch Couloir: This is a technical climb involving rock climbing and, at some times of year, ice climbing. The Notch Couloir is to the (climber&#39;s) left of the Diamond face.</p><br>
<h2>Historical names</h2><br>
<p>"Highest Peak"</p><br>
<p>"Les Deux Oreilles" (named by French fur traders), translation: "The Two Ears" (Longs Peak and Mount Meeker were both once named this)</p><br>
<p>"Longs Peak" – 1890</p><br>
<p>"Long&#39;s Peak"</p><br>
<p>"Nesotaieux"</p><br>
<h2>In literary fiction</h2><br>
<p>Jules Vernes science fiction novels From the Earth to the Moon (1865) and Around the Moon (1870) mention Longs Peak—called Longs Peak—as the site of a 200-inch reflector telescope built for the purpose of tracking the lunar spacecraft.</p><br>
<p>In his memoir "Speak, Memory," Vladimir Nabokov describes standing in a meadow (while butterfly hunting) with Long&#39;s Peak in the background.</p><br>
<p>Mainau is an island in Lake Constance . It is maintained as a garden island and a model of excellent environmental practices. Administratively, the island has been a part of Konstanz since December 1, 1971, when the municipality of Litzelstetten, of which Mainau was part, was incorporated into Konstanz. Mainau is still part of Litzelstetten, now one of 15 wards  of Konstanz.</p><br>
<p>The island belongs to the Lennart Bernadotte-Stiftung (English: the Lennart Bernadotte Foundation), an entity created by Prince Lennart Bernadotte, Count of Wisborg, originally a Prince of Sweden and Duke of Småland. It is one of the main tourist attractions of Lake Constance. Beside flowers there is a park landscape with views on the lake. There is also a greenhouse with tropical climate and thousands of butterflies.</p><br>
<p>Mainau Bay is the location of the university sailing club.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Until the Napoleonic mediatisations and secularisations of small German fiefs this island belonged to the Order of Teutonic Knights. It was later sold into private ownership. In 1853 Grand Duke Frederick I of Baden purchased the island as his personal property and used the palace built by the Teutonic Knights as summer palace. At the end of World War I Baden became a republic with the abdication of Grand Duke Frederick II, son of Frederick I. The former Grand Duke retained his private property including Mainau. When he died childless in 1928 the island passed to his sister Victoria of Baden, wife of King Gustaf V of Sweden. Upon her death two years later she bequeathed the island to her second son Prince Wilhelm, Duke of Södermanland and his descendants. In 1932 Prince Wilhem gave Mainau to his only child Lennart Bernadotte who owned it until 1974 when he transferred the island to a foundation. Count Bernadotte formed Enterprise Mainau GmbH in 1991 as a private enterprise to manage the island for the benefit of the Lennart Bernadotte-Stiftung. The Count remained active in managing Mainau until his death in 2004 but had appointed his second wife Sonja co-manager in 2001. Widowed, she and their children ran both the foundation and the management company until 2007. Since January 2007 Bettina Bernadotte, the eldest daughter of Lennart and Sonja, directs the Mainau GmbH as current manager, and since 2011 her brother Björn Bernadotte has joined her.</p><br>
<h2>Parks and gardens</h2><br>
<p>Mainau is a "flowering island" notable for its parks and gardens. Frederick I, Grand Duke of Baden, created the island&#39;s arboretum, which now contains 500 species of deciduous and coniferous trees, many exotic and valuable, including fine specimens of Sequoiadendron giganteum (1864) and Metasequoia glyptostroboides (1952). The island also contains about 200 rhododendron and azalea varieties.</p><br>
<p>The Italian Rose Garden laid out geometrically with pergolas, sculptures, and fountains, and includes some 500 rose varieties. The Mediterranean terraces contain exotic pot plants, including palm trees, agaves, cacti, and bougainvillea. The island as a whole contains about 30,000 rose bushes representing 1,200 varieties, and about 20,000 dahlias of 250 varieties.</p><br>
<h2>Further reading</h2><br>
<p>Altun Ha is the name given to the ruins of an ancient Mayan city in Belize, located in the Belize District about 50 km north of Belize City and about 10 km west of the shore of the Caribbean Sea. The site covers an area of about 8 km&sup2;.</p><br>
<p>Stones from the ruins of the ancient structures were reused for residential construction of the agricultural village of Rockstone Pond in modern times, but the ancient site did not come to the attention of archeologists until 1963. The Old Northern Highway connects Altun Ha to Belizes Northern Highway, and the site is accessible for tourism. The largest of Altun Has temple-pyramids, the "Temple of the Masonry Altars", is 16 m high. A drawing of this structure is the logo of Belize&#39;s leading brand of beer, "Belikin".</p><br>
<h2>Etymology</h2><br>
<p>According to the Belize Institute of Archaeology, the site&#39;s name means "Rockstone Water," and is a Yucatec Mayan approximation of the name of the nearby village of Rockstone Pond. In Yucatec Mayan, haltun is a stone water deposit or cistern, and ha means water. An ancient emblem glyph for the site has been identified, but its phonetic reading is not currently known.</p><br>
<h2>Archaeological investigations and rediscovery</h2><br>
<p>In 1961, W.R. Bullard conducted excavations led by the Royal Ontario Museum, at Baking Pot and San Estevan, and although no excavations took place, the site was initially called “Rockstone Pond.” In 1963, quarrying activity by local villagers led to the recovery of a large, elaborately carved jade pendant. The current commissioner of archaeology, Hamilton Anderson, notified David M. Pendergast and a reconnaissance trip was made in 1963. Starting in 1964, an archaeological team led by Dr. David Pendergast of the Royal Ontario Museum began extensive excavations and restorations of the site, which continued through 1970. There was a total of 40 months of excavation with a field season in 1971 of ceramic and laboratory analysis.</p><br>
<h2>Setting</h2><br>
<p>Altun Ha lies on the north-central coastal plain of Belize, in a dry tropical zone. The site was very swampy during its pre-Columbian occupation, with very few recognizable water sources. Currently, the only recognizable natural water source is a creek beyond the northern limit of the mapped area. The water sources used during occupation were Gordon Pond, which is the main reservoir, and the Camp Aguada, which is located in the site center. The site may have contained two chultuns, but provenience is lost since they are used in modern times.</p><br>
<p>The site itself consists of a central precinct composed of Groups A and B. Groups A and B and Zones C, D, and E consist of the nucleated area, with Zones G, J, K, M, N making part of the suburban area. The site does not contain any stela, suggesting that stelae were not part of ceremonial procedures. There are two recorded causeways, one in Zone C and one connecting Zone E and Zone F. The Zone C causeway does not connect to any structures, but is probably related to Structure C13, and was perhaps used for ceremonial purposes. The other causeway connected the two zones where water sources were located, and was constructed for topographical reasons, specifically to traverse areas of swampy land; it may have been impassable without raised walkways.</p><br>
<h2>Occupational history</h2><br>
<p>Altun Ha was occupied for many centuries, from about 900 B.C. to A.D. 1000. Most of the information on Altun Ha comes from the Classic Period from about A.D. 400 to A.D. 900, when the city was at its largest.</p><br>
<h3>Preclassic</h3><br>
<p>The earliest structures found at Altun Ha, found in Zone C, are two round platforms that date to about BC 900−800, structures C13 and C17. Structure C13 contains remnants of postholes and several burials, while C17 has traces of burning, or fire. Structure C13 was an early religious building, with Zone C inhabitants being of relatively high status. The Late Preclassic had a population increase and large public structures were built. The first of these was structure F8 in AD 200. Although this structure was constructed at the end of the Preclassic, the majority of the archaeological evidence dates to the Early Classic. This structure has a two-element stair composed of small steps with stairside outsets that were perhaps devoted to innovation. F8 also had a three-stage development.</p><br>
<h3>Early Classic</h3><br>
<p>One of the most important finds in the Early Classic comes from structure F8, specifically tomb F8/1. The tomb was placed here about fifty years after the construction of the structure. It contained the remains of an adult male who was interred with a jade and shell necklace, a pair of jade earflares, two shell disks, a pair of pearls, five pottery vessels, and fifty-nine valves of Spondylus shells. Bib head beads in the necklace are associated with southern Mesoamerica. The ceramics for the most part reflect the pattern that was being established at other burials in Altun Ha. Above the burial, however, the roof showed association to the large Mexican site Teotihuacan. The burial was capped with over 8,000 pieces of chert debitage and 163 formal chert tools. The ritual offering, or cache, also contained jade beads, Spondylus valves, puma and dog teeth, slate laminae, and a large variety of shell artifacts. The clear association to Teotihuacan however, comes from the 248 Pachuca green obsidian objects and the 23 ceramic jars, bowls and dishes.Pendergast, David M.</p><br>
<p>1971 Evidence of Early Teotihucan-Lowland Maya Contact at Altun Ha. American Antiquity 36(4):pp. 455-460. The obsidian is of the Miccaotli or Early Tlamimilolpa phase, suggesting that this symbolism was still important and dominant at Teotihuacan. This offering may be of importance to Teotihuacan because of the associations that the ruler in the burial had with central Mexico or the association that the entire Altun Ha community had with Teotihuacan.</p><br>
<p>There is also evidence of contact and trading with the other side of Mesoamerica in the intermediate area. An offering in the central ceremonial precinct contained an undecorated lidded limestone vessel with jadeite objects, two pearls, laminae of crystalline hematite, Spondylus shell beads, and a tumbaga gold-copper alloy bead representing a jaguar claw. This deposit has been dated to about 500. Traditionally, it was not believed that the Maya had gold during the Classic period; gold was restricted to the Postclassic. This is in part because many believed that gold was not naturally occurring in the Maya area, but recent investigations have shown that placer gold can be found in the streams of the upland zone of western Belize. The Maya most likely did not use metallurgy because of a lack of techniques, which may have been due to the fact that yellow in Maya ideology represent dying plant life and crop failure. This artifact is also identical with other artifacts of the Cocle in central Panama. The Cocle had a sufficient amount of metalworking by 500, and surely played a role in trade relationships beyond Panama. This discovery also shows that important trade networks were set up much earlier than previously thought.Pendergast, D. M.</p><br>
<p>1970 Tumbaga Object from the Early Classic Period, Found at Altun Ha, British Honduras (Belize). Science 168(3927):pp. 116-118.</p><br>
<h3>Late Classic</h3><br>
<p>In general, the elite burials at Altun Ha during the Late Classic can be characterized by large amounts of jade. Over 800 pieces of jade have been recovered at the site. More than 60 of these pieces are carved. The beginning of the Late Classic at Altun Ha had one of the most interesting burials in the Maya lowlands. Structure B-4 has tombs with many jade artifacts, including a large jade plaque with a series of twenty glyphs in the phase six construction level. In the 1968 field season, after excavating many tombs in Structure B-4, also called the Temple of the Masonry Altars, the seventh phase of construction revealed the most elaborate tomb at the site nicknamed “The Sun God’s Tomb”.</p><br>
<h4>The Sun God's Tomb</h4><br>
<p>The Sun God’s Tomb is located in Structure B-4, also called the Temple of the Masonry Altars. Structure B-4 is located in Group B, which is part of the central precinct at Altun Ha, and has a height of 16 meters. Phase VII is the level in which this tomb is located, is dated to about 600−650, which is at the beginning of the Late Classic period. The tomb is the seventh and earliest in B-4, which made the excavators designate this burial Tomb B-4/7.Pendergast, David M.</p><br>
<p>1969 Altun Ha, British Honduras (Belize): the Sun God&#39;s tomb David M. Pendergast. Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto.</p><br>
<p>Tomb B-4/7 contained the skeleton of an adult male with many offerings. The body was fully extended dorsally with the skull facing south-southwest. The person had a height of 170–171 cm, with the recovered skeletal materials consisting of a fragment of the skull, the mandible, long bones, five teeth, two vertebrae, five carpal bones, the patellas, and miscellaneous metacarpals, metatarsals, and phalanges.</p><br>
<p>The bulk of the interpretations, research, and interest in this tomb have undoubtedly been on the artifacts that were contained in this particular burial. In the initial study, Pendergast classifies these artifacts between perishables and non-perishables.</p><br>
<p>The perishable artifacts that are in the burial that the researchers were able to recognize include a wooden platform that the body was placed on, felid skins, cloth, matting, cordage, rods, stuccoed objects, red pigment, and gray clay. Not all perishable objects have been interpreted for their original use in the burial, but some have clear associations. The entire tomb was covered in cloth, with textile impressions noted on the pottery. Red pigment was distributed throughout the tomb, with evidence of it on most of the jade.</p><br>
<p>The researchers documented 43 non-perishable artifacts. These include ceramic bowls; shell beads; jadeite anklets, bracelets and beads; pearls; pyrite and hematite artifacts; and, the most outstanding of all, a carved jade head of the Sun God, Kinich Ahau. The jade head has a height of 14.9 cm, a circumference of 45.9 cm and a weight of 4.42 kg. The jade head was placed at the pelvis of the body, with the face of the jade boulder facing the skull.</p><br>
<p>The Sun God’s Tomb marks the starting point for tomb construction in Structure B-4 during the Late Classic period. The unusual form of this tomb shows the distinctive cultural aspects of Altun Ha and the Caribbean zone compared to the inland Classic Maya sites. Pendergast suggests that with so much jade found at the site, the jade head may have been carved at the site with imported jade. The giant jade head also suggests that this small site had a strong status as a trade or ceremonial center. Pendergast also suggests that this tomb contained a priest that was associated with the Sun God, and that Structure B-4 was in fact dedicated to this deity, based on this one artifact. More recent research however, has shown that this interpretation may be incorrect. Recent research suggests that this giant jade head is actually a Jester God. When drawing this figure spread out on a plane, the figure on this carving shows more of a resemblance to a bird deity with maize iconography, not Kinich Ahau.Taube, Karl</p><br>
<p>1998 The Jade Hearth: Centrality, Rulership, and the Classic Maya Temple. In Function and Meaning in Classic Maya Architecture, edited by Stephen D. Houston, pp. 427-478. Dumbarton Oaks, Washington D.C. The Jester God is an early symbol of Maya rulership and is usually seen iconographically in the head, or in this case the jade head.</p><br>
<p>With so many artifacts associated with this tomb, it is clear that the male buried in here was of great importance.Fields, Virginia M.</p><br>
<p>1991 The Iconographic Heritage of the Maya Jester God. In Sixth Palenque Round Table, 1986, edited by Merle Greene Robertson and Virginia M. Fields. Electronic version. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. The Jester God argument is a better fit for what this person represented, which would also correlate with this being the first tomb constructed in Structure B-4.</p><br>
<h4>Terminal Classic</h4><br>
<p>By 700, modifications in the Central Precinct became rarer, and in Plaza B only Structures B4 and B6 were modified regularly, while Plaza A was still being modified extensively. By 850, structures B5 and A8 were completely abandoned. Gradual abandonment of the site began in 800, except for Zone E, which actually reached its peak usage and occupation between 700 and 800.</p><br>
<p>Structure D2 is located at the edge of the site’s Central Precinct and is dated to the Late-Terminal Classic. This structure in particular yielded a stemmed bifacial blade of Pachuca green obsidian in a post-abandonment offering. The form, size and manufacturing characteristics are very similar to those found in F8. Two possible explanations for the context of this artifact are that the blade could have been produced long after the decline of Teotihuacan, or was reused from an earlier time period.</p><br>
<h3>Postclassic</h3><br>
<p>In the Postclassic, Structures A1 and A5 were solely used for depositing the dead. By the beginning of the eleventh century, the site of Altun Ha was completely abandoned. During the Late Postclassic after 1225, however, there was a renewed limited occupation at Altun Ha which lasted probably until the fifteenth century. Lamanai-related Postclassic ceremonial vessels were excavated atop B-4.</p><br>
<h2>Diet at Altun Ha</h2><br>
<p>The diet at Altun Ha was a maize based (C-4) diet, but there was also a large marine component to their diet compared to other sites in the Maya area. The marine/reef resources were more important here than in other regions. Between the Preclassic and Early Classic, there was a dramatic increase of maize consumption, which researchers argue is an indication of a rise in intensive maize agriculture at the beginning of the Early Classic. The individuals with the highest recognized status during this time period also had the highest intake of maize. In the Late Classic, more maize was consumed in the central precinct than in the outer zones, and Zone C had a higher degree of reef resources than in other areas. In the Postclassic, a higher portion of terrestrial animals were consumed, possibly deer or dogs.White, Christine D., David M. Pendergast, Fred J. Longstaffe, and Kimberley R. Law</p><br>
<p>2001 Social Complexity and Food Systems at Altun Ha, Belize: The Isotopic Evidence. Latin American Antiquity 12(4):pp. 371-393.</p><br>
<h2>Caches at Altun Ha</h2><br>
<p>Caches occur in two categories at Altun Ha. The largest class is in communally built structures that were dedicated to public ritual, the second occurs in residential structures with usually a single-family focus. The primary axis was the principal determinant of cache position in communally built structures. The primary axis functioned as the main avenue of communication with deities. In other public and domestic contexts, there are offerings that are away from the primary axis, and this is based on a matter of exclusion. Late Preclassic caches at Altun Ha can be defined by the round platform. Jade objects become significant in offerings by 450−300 BC. Classic Period caching practices at Altun Ha consisted of single, highly varied offerings in context with structural modification. The caches during this time period had a high scale of ceremonial value and made a forceful statement of the site’s prominence.</p><br>
<p>Preikestolen or Prekestolen  is a famous tourist attraction in the municipality of Forsand in Rogaland county, Norway. Preikestolen is a steep cliff which rises 604 m above the Lysefjorden. Atop the cliff, there is an almost flat top of approximately 25 x. It sits on the north side of the fjord, opposite the Kjerag plateau, located on the south side.</p><br>
<p>Tourism at the site has been increasing in recent years, with between 150,000 and 200,000 visitors in 2012, making it one of the most visited natural tourist attractions in Norway. BASE jumpers often leap from the cliff. Due to its increased popularity, there is currently a project under way to improve the path to the site, which is only accessible via a 3.8 km long hike.</p><br>
<h2>Name</h2><br>
<p>The old local name of the site is Hyvlatonnå (Planed Tooth). The name Prekestolen (without the i) was coined around the year 1900 when the local tourist organisation, wanted to promote the site for trekking. The "i" was added later to concord with Nynorsk, the official local form of Norwegian, and the site is now known both locally and officially as "Preikestolen."</p><br>
<h2>Access</h2><br>
<p>Preikestolen is located in the southern part of the Ryfylke district in Rogaland county in Western Norway. The city of Stavanger, the fourth largest in Norway, with a number of direct flights between European cities, is located 25 km from the site, and the parking facility for Preikestolen is located about one hour from Stavanger by ferry and car.</p><br>
<p>Access to Preikestolen from Stavanger is via the Norwegian National Road 13 (Rv13) and the ferry from Tau. From the south, access is by the Rv13 through Sandnes via the ferry from Lauvvika to Oanes. The road is usually open and the ferries running year-round. However, due to snow, it is not always possible to do the hike to the top in the winter.</p><br>
<p>The road to the site ends in the municipality of Strand, just south of the town of Jørpeland at a parking facility at the Preikestolen Fjellstue, with a trail extending from the parking facility to the site. A round-trip hike to Preikestolen from the closest car park takes about 3–4 hours for someone of average fitness.</p><br>
<p>The walk to Preikestolen is very steep in places. The path starts at the Preikestolhytta, at an elevation of approximately 270 m above sea level, and climbs to 604 m. The hike takes 1–3 hours depending on traffic along the trail, experience, and fitness level. Even though the elevation differential is only 334 m and the walk is not particularly long, about 3.8 km each way, the total elevation gain and loss over the course of the hike is more than one might initially expect, as the path climbs and descends various ridges.</p><br>
<p>The walk is not recommended in winter and spring when there is snow and ice, and the track may be slippery. The best season to hike the trail is from April to October. Sturdy shoes and rain gear are recommended for the hike.</p><br>
<p>A convenient alternative is available from mid June to mid August, a tourist ferry from to Lysebotn that passes beneath the Pulpit Rock. Booking well in advance is recommended, as this is a very popular route. A more expensive alternative is to sail through the Lysefjorden, with trips running year-round. Outside of summer, the weather may be wet and cold, and clouds may obstruct views of the cliff. The ship stops at several small docks on the way in and out, including a layover at the end of the Lysefjorden at the village of Lysebotn.</p><br>
<h3>Improvement project</h3><br>
<p>In early April 2013, a project started to improve the path up to Preikestolen as the old one was so small that it often caused "delays", and at some points on the path it was sometimes impossible to get through. By August 2014, the path was completed. Access to the plateau was improved, and traffic on the way up and down is now much less delayed because of bottlenecks.</p><br>
<h3>Safety</h3><br>
<p>The authorities have opted not to install fencing or other safety devices as they felt it would detract from the natural beauty of the site and the fact that fatalities at the site are extremely rare, despite having approximately 200,000 visitors each year. Furthermore, there were concerns that fences or other devices might encourage dangerous behavior such as climbing onto the fences. It should also be noted that it is a policy from Norwegian authorities that "we cannot fence in all nature in this country", and this is supported by the Norwegian population who are generally more accustomed to "dangerous nature" of their country than foreign tourists.</p><br>
<p>Up until 2013 there had been no accidental fatalities at the site. However, there were previously suicides and suicide attempts. In February 2000, an Austrian woman and a Norwegian man committed a joint suicide by jumping together off the cliff after meeting on the internet and forming a suicide pact. In October 2004, a young German couple were on their way to the cliff to commit suicide but were stopped by the Norwegian authorities before being able to carry out the act. In 2013 a Spanish tourist became the first person to die from what was ruled an accidental fall; however, there have been indications that this was also a suicide, not an accident.</p><br>
<h2>Nature</h2><br>
<h3>Geology</h3><br>
<p>The cliff was formed during the ice age, approximately 10,000 years ago, when the edges of the glacier reached the cliff. The water from the glacier froze in the crevices of the mountain and eventually broke off large, angular blocks, which were later carried away with the glacier. This is the cause of the angular shape of the plateau. Along the plateau itself there continues to be a deep crack. Due to these cracks, the plateau will at some point fall down, but all the geological investigations have revealed that this will not happen in the foreseeable future, and geologists have confirmed the safety of the plateau.</p><br>
<h3>Climate</h3><br>
<p>Along the fjord there is a mild and humid coastal climate.</p><br>
<h3>Surrounding landscape</h3><br>
<p>The cliff overlooks the lush green valleys of the Ryfylke region. The mountains surrounding the cliff reach heights of up to 843 m. Some of the hilltops have plains which are interspersed with lakes.</p><br>
<p>Nearby, close to the bottom of the Lysefjorden, is the 1,110 m tall mountain Kjerag which is also a very popular hiking destination. Recently, some tourists have elected to forego trips to the increasingly popular and crowded Preikestolen and go to Kjerag instead.</p><br>
<h2>Trivia</h2><br>
<p>A granite sculpture of the cliff was erected in the town Langeskov in Denmark to commemorate its twin town of Forsand.</p><br>
<p>In the final scene of the final episode of the second season of Vikings the main character, Ragnar Lothbrok, is seen sitting atop Preikestolen.</p><br>
<p>Compressed air from Lysefjorden/Preikestolen is being sold in cans, mostly to China.</p><br>
<p>A scene in Mission Impossible 6 features Tom Cruise climbing the face of the cliff at Preikestolen.</p><br>
<p>Mayapan ,  is a Pre-Columbian Maya site a couple of kilometers south of the town of Telchaquillo in Municipality of Tecoh, approximately 40 km south-east of Mérida and 100 km west of Chichen Itza; in the state of Yucatán, Mexico. Mayapan was the political and cultural capital of the Maya in the Yucatán Peninsula during the Late Post-Classic period from the 1220s until the 1440s. Estimates of the total city population are 15,000–17,000 persons, and the site has more than 4000 structures within the city walls, and additional dwellings outside.</p><br>
<p>The site has been professionally surveyed and excavated by archeological teams, beginning in 1939; five years of work was done by a team in the 1950s, and additional studies were done in the 1990s. Since 2000, a collaborative Mexican-United States team has been conducting excavations and recovery at the site, which continue.</p><br>
<h2>Layout</h2><br>
<p>Mayapan is 4.2 square kilometers and has over 4000 structures, most of them residences, packed into this compound within the city walls. Built-up areas extend a half kilometer beyond the city walls in all directions. The stone perimeter wall has twelve gates, including seven major gates with vaulted entrances. The wall is 9.1 km long and is roughly ovate with a pointed northeast corner.</p><br>
<p>The ceremonial center of the site is located in Square Q of the city&#39;s grid in the center of the wider western half of the walled enclosure. The ceremonial center has a tightly packed cluster of temples, colonnaded halls, oratories, shrines, sanctuaries, altars, and platforms (for oration, dancing, or stela display). A.L. Smith, an archeologist with the Carnegie Institute, estimated 10–12,000 people lived within the walled city.</p><br>
<p>According to Dr. Bradley Russell&#39;s survey outside the city walls, there were numerous additional dwellings and he revised the total population estimate to between 15,000–17,000 people. His survey results are posted online at. People living outside of the city wall engaged in agriculture, animal-raising, and specialized activities such as lime production. Russell also found a colonnaded hall outside the city wall, revealing much is still to be discovered regarding the complexity of this urban landscape.</p><br>
<p>The Temple of Kukulcan, a large pyramid also known as the Castillo, is the main temple in Mayapan. It is located immediately to the east of the Cenote Chen Mul, which has caves radiating from it. In form, the Temple of Kukulcan (Structure Q-162 on the site map) is a radial four-staircase temple with nine terraces; it is generally similar to the Temple of Kukulcan at the earlier site of Chichen Itza. However, the Mayapan temple appears to be an inferior imitation of the one at Chichen Itza, and the citys buildings in general are not constructed as well as those in other Mayan cities. For example, most or all of the vaulted roofs in Mayapan have collapsed, while many of the better-built buildings at Chichen Itza remain intact. Other major temples in the ceremonial center include three round ones, which are unusual for the Maya area and are also linked to the deity Kukulkan/Quetzalcoatl in his wind god (Ehecatl) aspect. Unlike Chichen Itza, Mayapan has no ballcourts.</p><br>
<p>The extensive residential zones of the site are composed of dwellings and ancillary domestic structures, with those around the ceremonial district larger and of higher quality and those toward the fringes being generally poorer. The houses are often arranged in small patio groups surrounding small courtyards. Houses were built haphazardly without organized streets. Lanes wind among the residences and walls. The residential areas of the site contain many cenotes, perhaps as many as 40. Settlement was the most dense in the southwestern part of the city where cenotes are more numerous.</p><br>
<h2>Historical overview</h2><br>
<p>The ethnohistorical sources – such as Diego de Landa&#39;s Relacion de las Cosas de Yucatan, compiled from native sources in the 16th century – recount that the site was founded by Kukulcan (the Mayan name of Quetzalcoatl, the Toltec king, culture hero, and demigod) after the fall of Chichen Itza. He convened the lords of the region, who agreed to found a new capital at Mayapan. The lords divided the towns of Yucatán among them, and chose the chief of the Cocom family as their leader.</p><br>
<p>The ethnohistorical sources recount multiple different histories of the rise and fall of Mayapan (Roys 1962). These histories are often confusing, chronologically implausible, and difficult to reconcile. For example, some sources say that the Maya revolted in 1221 against the Maya-Toltec lords of Chichen Itza. After a short civil war, the lords of various powerful cities and families met to restore a central government to Yucatán. They decided to build a new capital city near the town of Telchaquillo, hometown of Hunac Ceel, the general who defeated the rulers of Chichen Itza. The new city was built within a defensive wall and named Mayapan, meaning "Standard of the Maya people".</p><br>
<p>The chief of the Cocom family, a rich and ancient lineage that had taken part in the revolt against Chichen, was chosen to be king, and all the other noble families and regional lords were to send members of their families to Mayapan to play parts in the government (and perhaps act as hostages for the good behavior of the subsidiary cities). Mexican mercenaries from Tabasco were also employed to keep order and maintain power. Another family, the Xiu, may have been living in the Mayapan area prior to the arrival of the Cocom; the Xiu claim to be a part of the lineage from Uxmal. This arrangement lasted for over 200 years. (An alternative account is given in a Maya chronicle from the Colonial era, claiming that Mayapan was contemporary with Chichen Itza and Uxmal and allied with those cities, but archeological evidence shows this version to be less likely.)</p><br>
<p>Mayapan became the primary city in a group of allies that included much of the northern Yucatán, and trade partners that extended directly to Honduras, Belize, and the Caribbean island of Cozumel, and indirectly to Mexico. Though Mayapan was ruled by a council, the Jalach winik and the aj k’in (the highest ruler, and the high priest) dominated the political sphere. Below the two primary officials were many other officials with varying responsibilities. The range of classes went from the nobility, down to slaves, with intermediary classes in between. The social climate of Mayapan was made complicated by the antagonistic relationship between the factions of nobles, which were often arranged by kinship (Pugh 2009; Milbrath 2003). In 1441, Ah Xupan of the powerful noble family of Xiu became resentful of the political machinations of the Cocom rulers and organized a revolt. As a result, all of the Cocom family, except one who was away in Honduras conducting trade, were killed, Mayapan was sacked, burned, and abandoned, all the larger cities went into decline, and Yucatán devolved into warring city states.</p><br>
<p>Archaeological evidence indicates that at least the ceremonial center was burned at the end of the occupation. Excavation has revealed burnt roof beams in several of the major buildings in the site center.</p><br>
<h2>Excavations and investigations</h2><br>
<p>In 1841 John L. Stephens was the first to document parts of the Mayapan site with two important illustrations. The first was of the Q-152 round temple, and the second was of the Pyramid of Kukulkan. He was the first in a long string of explorers who drew the ruins of Mayapan. The first large-scale archeological site surveys were not conducted until 1938 by R.T. Patton. These surveys mapped the main plaza group and the city wall, and were the basis of later maps (Russell 2008).</p><br>
<p>In the 1950s, archaeologists of the Carnegie Institution, including A. L. Smith, Robert Smith, Tatiana Proskouriakoff, Edwin Shook, Karl Ruppert and J. Eric Thompson conducted five years of intensive archeological investigations at Mayapan. Their work was published in a mimeographed series of Current Reports. The Current Reports have recently been republished in their entirety by the University of Colorado Press (John Weeks 2009). The final report was published by the Carnegie Institution as Mayapan, Yucatan, Mexico, by H. E. D. Pollock, Ralph L. Roys, A. L. Smith, and Tatiana Proskouriakoff (1962, Publication 619). Robert Smith published a two-volume monograph on The Pottery of Mayapan in 1971 (Papers of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology 66, Harvard University).</p><br>
<p>In the early 1990s, Clifford T. Brown of Tulane University carried out excavations in the residential zones of Mayapan as part of his doctoral dissertation research. Several years later, the National Institute of Anthropology and History (INAH) of Mexico began extensive architectural excavations and consolidation under the direction of archaeologist Carlos Peraza Lope. This work continues to the present. It has resulted in the discovery of many important artifacts, murals, stuccoes, and architectural elements.</p><br>
<p>From 2001 to 2009, further investigations were begun at the site by a team under the direction of Dr. Marilyn Masson from the State University New York at Albany, Carlos Peraza Lope of INAH, and Timothy S. Hare of Morehead State University. This "Economic Foundations of Mayapan" (PEMY) Project performed mapping, surface survey and collection, test-pitting, and horizontal excavation across the city. Major findings of this project include the identification of diverse occupational specialization among the citys commoners, who worked as craftsmen, conscripted military personnel, farmers, and domestic servants. Great variation is now recognized in the types of work performed by commoners of different households and their degrees of affluence. This project has also identified a probable major market plaza in Square K (between the site center and major north gate D); Richard Terry, Bruce Dahlin, and Daniel Bair have analyzed soil samples from this location to test the function of this locality. In 2008 and 2009, the PEMY project focused excavations on an outlying ceremonial group by the far eastern city gate (Gate H), known as Itzmal Chen, as part of its study of the economic and social links between governing elites and distant neighborhoods within the city.</p><br>
<h2>Chronology</h2><br>
<h3>Before Mayapan</h3><br>
<p>Some evidence suggests overlapping occupation of the area by different cultures. Shook in 1954 said that there may have been a Puuc "city" somewhere near Mayapan prior to its post-classical settlement. The mixture of Puuc pot sherds in the lower parts of Mayapan lots may support this, but it is a very small percentage of the material (2% in most cases and no more than 4% in others).</p><br>
<h3>Site chronology based on ceramics</h3><br>
<p>According to Robert Smith, the ceramicist for the Carnegie Institution, there were two ceramic phases in Mayapan: hocaba, which he said started around A.D. 1200 and may have included types named Mama Red and Navula Unslipped, more commonly associated with southern lowland settlements. (Milbrath and Pereza argue that the Hocaba phase starts in A.D. 1100, which fits better with the chronology of the southern lowland sites.) The second phase is Tases, which has some overlapping typology with the Hocaba phase.</p><br>
<h3>Site chronology based on radiocarbon dates</h3><br>
<h4>Middle Preclassical Date</h4><br>
<h4>Terminal Classical Dates</h4><br>
<h3>Early Mayapan occupation</h3><br>
<p>Three separate samples form the frame for early Mayapan occupation. These dates are A.D. 990–1170. However, two of these dates come from inexact sources. One was burned copal found in an unknown structure (apparently the label had eroded off of the structure); the researchers inferred that it was Q-95. The early date would suggest that this temple was built and in use in Mayapan&#39;s early history.</p><br>
<p>Carbon dating of the pits below what was assumed to be Q-97 (again the label had eroded) dated from A.D. 990–1180.</p><br>
<p>Charcoal found in the early construction phase of the site&#39;s main pyramid was dated A.D. 1020–1170. This sample was found in reliable context and is presumably the most accurate. It is important for suggesting that the post-classical phase in Mayapan started earlier than A.D. 1200.</p><br>
<h3>Late Mayapan occupation</h3><br>
<p>Mayapans settlement pattern radiated outwards to its fringes over time; many of the later dates are from materials outside of the main group of ruins. The fall of the city is tentatively dated around A.D. 1461, based on the lack of construction of altars and burial cists after this date. (Lope et al. 2006). According to Diego de Landa Calderon (1524 - 1579), the city was abandoned following the countrys enslavement by a certain chieftain of the Yucatecan nation (in collusion with a garrison of Mexica Indians), and which abuse eventually led to internecine war, culminating in the city&#39;s demise in circa 1441.</p><br>
<h2>Agriculture and animals</h2><br>
<p>Milpa, or mixed, fields may have been cultivated when Mayapan was inhabited. There is evidence that the area around Mayapan was regularly used for slash-and-burn agriculture. Cenotes and underground limestone canals serve as the only source of freshwater in this area, making them essential to support agriculture. Researchers have suggested that Mayapan was an import/export center, and that they often traded luxury goods, such as cotton, salt, and honey, for products of obsidian and metal, which they would have forged. (Paris 2008) (Melbrath & Peraza 2003:29). Today farmers use mixed fields, called milpa fields, to cultivate maize, beans, squash, watermelons, mangoes, papayas and other crops. Also, citrus fruit such as oranges and limes are often grown within the domestic house groups of the local residents (Russell 2008:16).</p><br>
<p>Faunal remains indicate that the local population used varying methods of animal acquisition. A study done by M.A. Masson and C. Peraza Lope in 2008 looked at faunal remains from two different middens, one located in the monumental center by some houses, and the other is located in the domestic area outside the monumental compound. The largest samples of recognized remains within the monumental center were from: white-tailed deer (23%), dog (4.4%), turkey (12.9%), and iguana (10.2%). The combined contributions of fish make up around 1.2% of the samples. These percentages as well as the ones that will follow for the settlement zone are based on recognized remains. Primary animals may have made up larger portions of the diet but their remains are too difficult to recognize.</p><br>
<p>In the settlement zone, researchers found: white-tailed deer (8.4%), dog (1.4%), turkey (5.3%), iguana (14.5%), and fish (3.6%). Both turtle and rabbit remains were found in both sites, but they were consumed in small amounts (less than 1.5%). While excavating, the researchers noted many fish skeletons, but few fish heads. They concluded that the fish were being traded into Mayapan, and not collected near the site. If the fish had been prepared at the site, the heads would have been common refuse. Within the ceremonial center, numerous deer heads and teeth were found among the remains.(M.A. Masson, C. Peraza Lope 2008).</p><br>
<h2>Trade</h2><br>
<p>Mayapan was a major capital in the Yucatán, and there is extensive evidence that it had far-reaching trade routes, as seen in architecture and artifacts of other settlements in the region. A wide variety of goods were traded, including maize, honey, salt, fish, game, cloth, and birds.</p><br>
<h3>Peten</h3><br>
<p>Zacpeten on Lake Salpeten – Incense burners found at this site are nearly identical to those found at Mayapan. The temple assemblages at Zacpeten are very similar to those at Mayapan. Topoxte in Lake Yaxha, Peten also shares similarities of architecture and artifacts of effigy censers. Topoxte architectural remains show a similar stone carving style to Mayapan. Also, tiny “dwarf” shrines found at this site were very similar to shrines found at Mayapan. The two sites appear to have been abandoned around the same time; which may suggest a connection between their governments.</p><br>
<h3>Highland Guatemala</h3><br>
<p>Architectural and artifact connections are seen between Mayapan and the Utatlan in highland Guatemala. Examples are similar temple assemblages, the presence of skull imagery and squatting figures, extensive and lavish use of stucco combined with crude masonry, and effigy figure censers.</p><br>
<h3>Yucatan East Coast</h3><br>
<p>This region also shows apparent influence of Mayapan, in similar temple assemblages, similarities in architecture, effigy censers at some sites, and parallels between architectural decoration at Mayapan and some east coast sites. The east coast sites exported products such as cotton, salt, and honey from the Yucatán. Sites in Guatemala traded back cacao. El Chayal in Guatemala was the only source of the obsidian found at Mayapan.</p><br>
<h3>Aztecs, Central Mexico, and the Campeche Coast</h3><br>
<p>The presence of Matillas Fine Orange ceramics in Mayapan suggests trade with Tabasco. This area may have mediated trade between Mayapan and the rest of Central Mexico. Sculptures and murals at Mayapan suggest that there was contact between Mayapan and the rising Aztec empire. Some Mayapan figures showed details of Aztec dress, and what appears to be an Aztec deity is carved on an altar in Mayapan.</p><br>
<p>This evidence suggests a: “circum-Yucatecan trade route that linked Mayapan to Peten, northern Belize, and east-coast sites in the Late Postclassic period.” (Melbrath & Peraza Lope 2003:24–31)</p><br>
<h2>Symbolism</h2><br>
<p>The symbolism present in Mayapan is particularly significant, partially because the center of the site is mainly used for ritual purposes. There are many similarities between the murals in Mayapan and the art and iconography of the Aztec and Mixteca-Puebla regions. Symbols that they have in common include:</p><br>
<p>(Milbrath, Susan., Carlos Peraza Lope, Miguel Delgado Kú. 2010)</p><br>
<p>Serpent iconography is very common at Mayapan, serpent balustrade carvings are common throughout the ritual center in the complexes that are associated with the Cocom lineage like the Castillo (Milbrath, Susan., Carlos Peraza Lope, Miguel Delgado Kú 2010). In contrast depictions of the rain god Chaac are common to the temples related to the Xiu lineage. (Milbrath 2009:583) There are also depictions of the Monkey-man god</p><br>
<p>Most of the iconography in Mayapan is found either in murals on the temple walls, stone carving, or carved stone covered in plaster.</p><br>
<h2>Evidence of inequality</h2><br>
<p>Directionality may have played a role in the representation of inequality among the powerful factions of Mayapan. East and west were of primary importance because it represented the track of the sun through the sky. The east was associated with: life, males, and heat; whereas the west was associated with: death, females, and cold. This has led many sources to believe that the Itza and the Xiw may have been associated with east and west. There was very little evidence for obvious separation of residence between classes. This is mostly due to the residential center of Mayapan being located around the concentration of the water filled cenotes. Most residences are tandem structures made of several building within a separating wall. Many of these tandem structures include multiple residential buildings; the size of these residential buildings, relative to each other, suggests that some of them were for slaves. The integration of classes extends to the outer edges of the residential areas probably due to the convenience of being close to the agricultural fields. Some sources indicate that the analysis of oratarios or god-houses (large house-like shrines) show boundaries that were known to the people of Mayapan. This is shown in relation to the analysis of household oratarios and those oriented around the ceremonial center of Mayapan. Unfortunately there is very little skeletal evidence found in this region because of the composition of the soil. The goods found in different house structures do suggest different levels of social status, mainly in regard to the specialization of housing structures. There are at least two examples of obsidian workshops in Mayapan. The strongest evidence for inequality in Mayapan is found in the presence of deep shafts full of sacrificial victims, this suggests that the noble class had enough power to condemn some people to death.</p><br>
<h2>Abandonment</h2><br>
<p>The site of Mayapan was abandoned sometime in the 15th century. There has been some dispute over when the actual abandonment took place. However, written records state that the site was abandoned in A.D. 1441. There appear to be several contributing factors to the abandonment of Mayapan. Around A.D. 1420 a riot was started by the Xius against the Cocom which culminated in the death of nearly all (if not in fact all) of the Cocom lineage. Pestilence may have been involved in the subsequent abandonment of the site by the remaining Xiu inhabitants. There were several sources of evidence to support this interpretation. Evidence of burned wood was found inside of structure Y-45a as well as burned roofing material on many of the other structures that was dated to around the time of the collapse in K’atun 8 Ahua (roughly A.D. 1441–1461). A mass grave in the main plaza, and bodies in a burial shaft covered in ash were dated to around the collapse and showed signs of violence, some of the bodies still had large flint knives in their chests or pelvises, suggesting ritualized sacrifice. Smashed vessels litter the floors of the Y-45a complex that date to around A.D. 1270–1400, prior to the documented collapse of Mayapan. A vessel bearing the glyph K’atun 8 Ahua was found on the floor of this complex. From this they have posited that the complex was abandoned finally when the city fell (Lope 2006; Milbrath 2003). After A.D. 1461 there is little evidence of altars and burial cists being constructed after 1461, suggesting that the site had been abandoned by this point (Lope 2006). Very little evidence has been found to support later usage of Mayapan. Copal from an altar was found in the Templo Redondo compound that may suggest later pilgrimages to the Castillo de Kukulkan. However, these samples date to the industrial era and may not be valid, so any assumptions based on this evidence would also not be valid (Lope 2006:168).</p><br>
<p>The White Mountains are a mountain range covering about a quarter of the state of New Hampshire and a small portion of western Maine in the United States. They are part of the northern Appalachian Mountains and the most rugged mountains in New England. The range is heavily visited due to its proximity to Boston and, to a lesser extent, New York City and Montreal, Quebec, Canada.</p><br>
<p>Most of the area is public land, including the White Mountain National Forest and a number of state parks. Its most famous mountain is 6,288 ft Mount Washington, which is the highest peak in the Northeastern USA and for 76 years held the record for fastest surface wind gust in the world (231 mph in 1934). Mount Washington is part of a line of summits, the Presidential Range, that are named after USA presidents and other prominent Americans.</p><br>
<p>The White Mountains also include the Franconia Range, Sandwich Range, Carter-Moriah Range and Kinsman Range in New Hampshire, and the Mahoosuc Range straddling the border between it and Maine. In all, there are 48 peaks within New Hampshire as well as one (Old Speck Mountain) in Maine over 4,000 ft, known as the Four-thousand footers.</p><br>
<p>The Whites are known for a system of alpine huts for hikers operated by the Appalachian Mountain Club. The Appalachian Trail crosses the area from southwest to northeast.</p><br>
<h2>Etymology</h2><br>
<p>It is not clear where the name "White Mountains" came from. There is no record of what Native Americans called the range, although pre-Colonial names for many individual peaks are known. The name and similar ones such as "White Hills" or "Wine Hills" are found in literature from Colonial times. According to tradition, the mountains were first sighted from shipboard off the coast near the Piscataqua estuary. The highest peaks would often be snow-capped, appearing white. An alternate theory is that the mica-laden granite of the summits looked white to observers.</p><br>
<h2>Geology and physiography</h2><br>
<p>The White Mountains are a physiographic section of the larger New England province, which in turn is part of the larger Appalachian physiographic division.</p><br>
<p>The magma intrusions forming the White Mountains today were created 124 to 100 million years ago as the North American Plate moved westward over the New England hotspot.</p><br>
<p>Widespread evidence of glaciation may be seen in the U-shaped form of various notches, or mountain passes. Glacial cirques form the heads of Tuckerman Ravine on Mt. Washington and King Ravine on Mt. Adams. Glacial striations are visible at numerous locations, including on the exposed rocks at the summit of Pine Mountain in Gorham.</p><br>
<h2>Attractions</h2><br>
<p>The Mount Washington Auto Road and the historic Mount Washington Cog Railway ascend the ranges highest peak. Heavily visited Arethusa Falls, the second tallest waterfall in New Hampshire, lies on a southwest flank of Crawford Notch. The Old Man of the Mountain, a rock formation on Cannon Mountain that resembled the craggy profile of a mans face, was a White Mountain landmark until it fell in May 2003. It remains the state symbol of New Hampshire. The range also includes a natural feature dubbed "The Basin", consisting of a granite bowl, 20 ft in diameter, fed by a waterfall, worn smooth by the Pemigewasset River. The areas around The Basin are popular spots for swimming in the ice-cold mountain-fed water.</p><br>
<p>The range is crossed north–south by USA Route 3 and Interstate 93 through Franconia Notch and New Hampshire Route 16 through Pinkham Notch, and east–west by the Kancamagus Highway (part of New Hampshire Route 112) through Kancamagus Pass and USA Route 302 through Crawford Notch.</p><br>
<h2>Mapping</h2><br>
<p>Some of the earliest maps of the White Mountains were produced as tourist maps and not topographical maps. One of the first two tourist maps of the mountains was that produced by Franklin Leavitt, a self-taught artist born near Lancaster, New Hampshire in 1824. Leavitts hand-drawn map, today in the collection of Harvard University, is largely folk art, but does convey some of the regions features. Leavitt drew several versions of his map, beginning in 1852. The fourth version, printed in 1871, was printed at Boston and carried a retail price of one dollar. Other early maps of the region were drawn by H. Conant and by Harvard astronomer George Phillips Bond, who published the first topographical map of the region in 1853.</p><br>
<h2>Art</h2><br>
<p>As the most ruggedly picturesque area in the northeast USA, the White Mountains drew hundreds of painters during the 19th century. This group of artists is sometimes referred to as belonging to the "White Mountain school" of art. Others dispute the notion that these painters were a "school", since they did not all paint in the same style as, for example, those artists of the Hudson River School.</p><br>
<h2>In literature and drama</h2><br>
<p>Nathaniel Hawthorne chose the White Mountains as the setting for his short story, "The Great Carbuncle". Other White Mountain tales by Hawthorne include "The Ambitious Guest", "Sketches from Memory" and "The Great Stone Face". The White Mountain region also figures prominently in the writings of Louisa May Alcott, including the novel Eight Cousins and its sequel, Rose in Bloom.</p><br>
<p>Mount Monadnock, or Grand Monadnock, is a mountain in the New England state of New Hampshire, known for its presence in the writings of Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau. It is the most prominent mountain peak in southern New Hampshire and is the highest point in Cheshire County. It is located 62 mi northwest of Boston and 38 mi southwest of Concord, within the towns of Jaffrey and Dublin, New Hampshire. At 3,165 ft, Mount Monadnock is nearly 1,000 ft higher than any other mountain peak within 30 mi and rises 2,000 ft above the surrounding landscape.</p><br>
<p>It has long been cited as one of the most frequently climbed mountains in the world. Monadnock&#39;s bare, isolated, and rocky summit provides expansive views. A number of hiking trails ascend the mountain, including the 110 mi Metacomet-Monadnock Trail and the 50 mi Monadnock-Sunapee Greenway. The summit is barren largely because of fires set by early settlers. The first major fire, set in 1800 to clear the lower slopes for pasture, swept through the stands of virgin red spruce on the summit and flanks of the mountain. Between 1810 and 1820, local farmers, who believed that wolves were denning in the blowdowns, set fire to the mountain again. The conflagration raged for weeks, destroying the topsoil and denuding the mountain above 2,000 ft.</p><br>
<p>The term "monadnock" has come to be used by American geologists to describe any isolated mountain formed from the exposure of a harder rock as a result of the erosion of a softer rock that once surrounded it (a landform termed "inselberg" elsewhere in the world).</p><br>
<h2>Name</h2><br>
<p>The word "monadnock" is an Abenaki-derived word used to describe a mountain. Loosely translated it means "mountain that stands alone", although the exact meaning of the word is uncertain. The term was adopted by early settlers of southern New Hampshire and later by American geologists as an alternative term for an inselberg or isolated mountain. Mount Monadnock is often called Grand Monadnock, to differentiate it from other Vermont and New Hampshire peaks with "Monadnock" in their names.</p><br>
<p>Its official name on federal maps is "Monadnock Mountain".</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>The transcendentalists</h3><br>
<p>Ralph Waldo Emerson, Henry David Thoreau, and Margaret Fuller visited the mountain and wrote fondly of it. Emerson was a frequent visitor, and made the mountain the subject of "Monadnoc", one of his most famous poems. Thoreau visited the mountain four times between 1844 and 1860 and spent a great deal of time observing and cataloging natural phenomena. He is regarded as having written one of the first serious naturalist inventories of the mountain. A bog near the summit of Mount Monadnock and a rocky lookout off the Cliff Walk trail are named after him; another lookout is named after Emerson.</p><br>
<h3>The Halfway House and other structures</h3><br>
<p>In 1858, Moses Cudworth of Rindge opened the "Halfway House" hotel on the south side of the mountain, roughly halfway from the base to the summit. The "Toll Road" was built to service it. By that time the popularity of the mountain was booming, and it was not long before Cudworth enlarged the hotel to accommodate 100 guests. On busy summer days, the stables at the Halfway House held as many as 75 horses. The Halfway House became public property when hundreds of residents of the nearby towns formed a coalition to buy the Toll Road and hotel and prevent a radio tower from being constructed on the summit. After the hotel burned down in 1954, a concession stand operated at the site until 1969 when it and the toll road were both closed to public vehicles. Moses Spring, with its source in a hole drilled through a rock behind the site, is one of the few remaining artifacts of the hotel years. The foundations of two water tanks, and the nearby reservoir that fed them, are extant on the hillside above the Old Halfway House.</p><br>
<p>A small firewardens hut was located on the summit of Mount Monadnock and operated from 1911 to 1948, when it was decommissioned with the advent of modern means of detecting forest fires. The hut remained as a snack bar and hikers shelter until 1969 and was removed in 1972. A small cabin, located farther down the mountain, served as the fire lookout&#39;s residence. It, too, is gone.</p><br>
<p>A private dwelling, 400 ft south of the site of the former Halfway House, is the last remaining inholding on the mountain above 1,000 ft.</p><br>
<h3>Hiking history</h3><br>
<p>The earliest recorded ascent of Mount Monadnock took place in 1725 by Captain Samuel Willard and fourteen rangers under his command who camped at the top and used the summit as a lookout while patrolling for Native Americans. Before the practice came to be frowned upon, many early hikers carved their names in the summit; the earliest such engraving reads "S. Dakin, 1801" and is attributed to a local town clerk.</p><br>
<p>Notable "power hiking" records associated with the mountain include that of Garry Harrington, who hiked to the summit 16 times in a 24-hour period, and Larry Davis, who claimed to have hiked to the summit daily for 2,850 consecutive days (7.8 years).</p><br>
<p>Monadnock is often claimed to be the second-most frequently climbed mountain in the world, after Mount Fuji in Japan. Monadnock is climbed by 125,000 hikers yearly, while Mount Fuji sees 200,000-300,000 hikers yearly. However, according to UNESCO, neither mountain comes close in climbing popularity to Tai Shan in China, with more than 2 million visitors a year.</p><br>
<h2>Biogeography, ecology, and geology</h2><br>
<p>Due to fires in the early 19th century which burned a majority of the top 300 ft around the summit, there is little soil cover on the peak and surrounding uplands. Although the mountain has recovered to the degree that its landscape appears natural, Mount Monadnock is an example of a mountain which has an artificial tree line, occurring well below the climatic tree line of similar mountains in the region.</p><br>
<p>From the base to the summit, floral species diminish with increasingly shallow soil levels. The summit is home to many different specialized sub-alpine species which can retain moisture for long periods of time. Alpine and sub-alpine species include mountain ash, cotton grass, sheep laurel, mountain sandwort, and the mountain cranberry. Krummholz, trees stunted by harsh weather, are found on Mount Monadnock, as are several alpine bogs. Lower elevations on Mount Monadnock are clad in northern hardwood forest species; middle elevations support stands of red spruce. Before the fires, Mount Monadnock was totally covered in a red spruce forest. Since the summit has been barren of soil cover, red spruce have been slowly ascending back towards the top in a process known as ecological succession.</p><br>
<p>The mountain is largely composed of highly metamorphosed 400-million-year-old schist and quartzite rock primarily associated with the Devonian Littleton Formation, a stratum that extends south into Massachusetts and north into the White Mountains. At lower elevations on the mountain, and stratigraphically below the Littleton Formation, the bedrock is from the Silurian period, consisting of Rangeley Formation schists, Perry Mountain Formation quartzites, the Francestown Formation granulite, and the Warner Formation granulite. Structurally, the mountain is part of an overturned syncline – called a fold nappe – that was caused by the compressional forces of the Acadian orogeny. Dramatic small- to medium-scale metamorphic folds are visible on many of the rock faces of the mountain, including the famous Billings Fold (a recumbent syncline found about 450 ft west of the summit), shown in the 1942 edition of Marland P. Billings&#39; Structural Geology. In addition to impressive folds, the Devonian Littleton Formation also shows large pseudomorphs of sillimanite after andalusite. These sillimanite crystals, normally needle thin, occur as 4 in "turkey tracks" on Mount Monadnock and were formed during prograde metamorphism.</p><br>
<h2>Hydrology</h2><br>
<p>Mount Monadnock lies on the divide between the Connecticut River and Merrimack River watersheds. The northern slopes of the mountain drain to Howe Reservoir, then via Minnewawa Brook to the Ashuelot River, the Connecticut River, and ultimately Long Island Sound. Gleason Brook and Mountain Brook flow off the western slopes, then via Shaker Brook to the South Branch of the Ashuelot River. The southwestern slopes of the mountain drain to Fassett Brook, then Quarry Brook, before reaching the South Branch of the Ashuelot.</p><br>
<p>To the southeast of the mountain, Mead Brook and Stony Brook flow to Mountain Brook, a tributary of the Contoocook River, which flows north to the Merrimack River and ultimately the Gulf of Maine. The eastern slopes of the mountain drain to Thorndike Pond, the outlet of which (Stanley Brook) flows northeast to Nubanusit Brook, then into the Contoocook and the Merrimack.</p><br>
<h2>Recreation</h2><br>
<p>Mount Monadnock is open to hiking, backpacking, picnicking, and snowshoeing. Backcountry skiing is possible on some of the lower trails. A seasonal campground east of the mountain is maintained by the state of New Hampshire, but camping is not allowed anywhere else on the mountain. A per-person fee is charged (in season) to park at the Old Toll Road and State Park Headquarters trailheads. There are no roads to the summit, and the Old Toll Road, which leads to the Halfway House site, is closed to vehicles. ATVs are not allowed on the mountain. Good views of the mountain can be had from a number of regional roads and highways, especially from New Hampshire Route 124.</p><br>
<h3>Trails</h3><br>
<p>Mount Monadnock is criss-crossed by many miles of well-maintained hiking trails. The most popular trails are the White Dot Trail, 2.2 mi, the shortest but steepest ascent to summit, accessible from the Monadnock State Park headquarters and campground on the southeast side of the mountain; and the White Arrow Trail, 2.3 mi to summit, considered the easiest ascent, via the Old Toll Road (Halfway House) trailhead on the south side of the mountain. Other major trails include:</p><br>
<p>The Marlboro Trail, on the west side of the mountain, 2.2 mi to summit</p><br>
<p>The Dublin Path, also part of the Monadnock-Sunapee Greenway, on the north side 2.4 mi to summit</p><br>
<p>The Pumpelly Trail, on the northeast side, the longest ascent, 4.4 mi to summit</p><br>
<p>Access from the east side of the mountain is provided by the Birchtoft Trail (Gilson Pond trailhead) and several connecting trails to the summit.</p><br>
<p>Other important trails include the White Cross Trail, an alternative parallel to the White Dot Trail, and the Cliff Walk, a scenic detour that shadows a ledge to the east of the White Arrow Trail.</p><br>
<p>Mount Monadnock is the northern terminus of the Metacomet-Monadnock Trail (also known as the "M&M Trail"), a 110 mi hiking trail stretching south through Massachusetts to the Connecticut border. The trail ascends the mountain from the southwest; however, there is no trailhead where that trail crosses Route 124 at the foot of the mountain, and the highway there is marked with "no parking" signs. The closest trailhead southbound on the M&M Trail is on Bullard Road, which leads south from Route 124 half a mile west of the M&M Trail&#39;s crossing of the state highway.</p><br>
<p>The mountain is also the southern terminus of the Monadnock-Sunapee Greenway, a 50 mi highland trail connecting Mount Monadnock and Mount Sunapee. A third long-distance trail project, the Wantastiquet-Monadnock Greenway, aims at linking Mount Monadnock with Pisgah State Park and Wantastiquet Mountain, a prominent peak in Hinsdale, New Hampshire, overlooking the town of Brattleboro, Vermont, and the Connecticut River.</p><br>
<h3>Hiking the mountain</h3><br>
<p>The four-hour round trip to the summit and back via one of the shorter trails is considered moderately challenging for the average hiker but requires no technical skills during the late spring to early fall season. Wind and weather on the exposed, rocky summit is usually harsher than below, year round. Winter storms and summer thunderstorms can be life-threatening.</p><br>
<p>Winter snow and ice can linger on the trails well into May, making hiking hazardous or impossible without special equipment. The compacting of snow due to winter recreation on the more frequently used trails tends to lengthen the time it takes for the snow and ice to melt off. Stabilizers, crampons, ice axes, ski poles, and snowshoes may be helpful or necessary for winter and early spring ascents depending on ice and snow cover.</p><br>
<p>Fall hiking generally requires warmer clothing, an awareness of weather conditions, and earlier ascent times. As there are few reliable water sources on the mountain and little shelter from the sun above 2,000 ft, dehydration and heat stroke are potential hazards.</p><br>
<p>Poison ivy does not grow on Mount Monadnock, and venomous snakes do not inhabit it. The mountain and surrounding area are black bear habitat, although problem encounters with bears are rare.</p><br>
<p>Advice on hiking can be solicited in-season (Memorial Day through Columbus Day and select off-season weekends) at the park headquarters on the southeast side of the mountain. Trail descriptions and maps of Mount Monadnock are published by a variety of commercial and non-commercial sources. The Society for the Protection of New Hampshire Forests prints a complete guidebook with maps, trail descriptions, history, geology, ecology, and other trivia on the mountain.</p><br>
<h2>Conservation</h2><br>
<p>Most of the mountain has been protected and is not subject to development. The Society for the Protection of New Hampshire Forests is the major landowner, holding over 4,000 acre in its Monadnock Reservation. Lands on Monadnock are leased to the state for management purposes. An additional 1,000 acre on the mountain are owned directly by the state of New Hampshire as Monadnock State Park. The town of Jaffrey also owns portions of the mountain.</p><br>
<p>In 2000, the Metacomet-Monadnock Trail was included in a study by the National Park Service for possible inclusion in a new National Scenic Trail, now tentatively called the New England National Scenic Trail, which would also include the Mattabesett and Metacomet trails in Connecticut, giving it some of the status accorded to the Appalachian Trail. However, there seems to be some uncertainty whether or not the New Hampshire section of the Metacomet-Monadnock Trail will be included in the final NST designation.</p><br>
<h2>Artistic tributes</h2><br>
<p>Beside Emerson and Thoreau, other artists and writers have been inspired by Mount Monadnock, including:</p><br>
<p>William Preston Phelps (1848–1917) was known as "the Painter of Mount Monadnock".</p><br>
<p>Many other American artists have painted Mount Monadnock, among them Abbott Handerson Thayer, Rockwell Kent and Richard Whitney.</p><br>
<p>The American composer Alan Hovhaness (1911–2000), who climbed Mount Monadnock several times during his youth, composed the symphonic fantasy entitled Monadnock, Op. 2, No. 1, circa 1935.</p><br>
<p>H. P. Lovecraft, the early 20th century writer of horror, science fiction and fantasy, authored the poem "To Templeton and Mount Monadnock".</p><br>
<p>Galway Kinnell, a Pulitzer Prize-winning poet, wrote the poem "Flower Herding on Mount Monadnock".</p><br>
<p>Poet Edwin Arlington Robinson, who summered in Monadnock&#39;s shadow from 1911 to 1934, wrote the poem "Monadnock Through the Trees".</p><br>
<p>Part of the yearly Mount Monadnock Celebration of Dance takes place on the summit of Mount Monadnock at the autumn equinox.</p><br>
<h2>Other nearby peaks named Monadnock</h2><br>
<p>Pack Monadnock and North Pack Monadnock are two peaks in the Wapack Range, 11 mi to the east across the Contoocook River valley from Mount Monadnock, in Greenfield and Peterborough, New Hampshire. Pack is a Native American word for "little."</p><br>
<p>Little Monadnock Mountain is a peak located 7 mi southwest of Mount Monadnock in Troy and Fitzwilliam, New Hampshire. Like Mount Monadnock, it is crossed by the Metacomet-Monadnock Trail.</p><br>
<p>Monadnock Mountain is the name of a mountain in the Northeast Kingdom of Vermont.</p><br>
<p>The Chatham Islands form an archipelago in the Pacific Ocean about 800 km east of the South Island of New Zealand. It consists of about ten islands within a 40 km radius, the largest of which are Chatham Island and Pitt Island.</p><br>
<p>The archipelago is called Rēkohu ("Misty Sun") in the indigenous Moriori language, and Wharekauri in Māori. Moriori are the indigenous people of the Chatham Islands, and members of the Māori Ngāti Mutunga tribe have also settled on the island. It has officially been part of New Zealand since 1842 and includes the country&#39;s easternmost point, the Forty-Fours.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The islands are at about 43&deg;53&prime;S latitude, 176&deg;31&prime;W longitude, roughly 840 km east of Christchurch, New Zealand. The nearest mainland New Zealand point to the Chatham Islands is Cape Turnagain, in the North Island at a distance of 650 km. The nearest mainland city to the islands is Hastings, New Zealand, located 697 km to the North-West. The two largest islands, Chatham Island and Pitt Island, constitute most of the total area of 966 km&sup2, with a dozen scattered islets covering the rest.</p><br>
<p>The islands sit on the Chatham Rise, a large, relatively shallowly submerged (no more than 1,000 m deep at any point) part of the Zealandia continent that stretches east from near the South Island. The Chatham Islands, which emerged only within the last four million years, are the only part of the Chatham Rise showing above sea level.</p><br>
<p>The islands are hilly with coasts being a varied mixture including cliffs and dunes, beaches, and lagoons. Pitt is more rugged than Chatham, although the highest point (299 m) is on a plateau near the southernmost point of the main island, which is dotted with numerous lakes and lagoons, flowing mainly from the island&#39;s nearby second highest point, Maungatere Hill, at 294 metres. Notable are the large Te Whanga Lagoon, and Huro and Rangitahi. Chatham has a number of streams, including Te Awainanga and Tuku.</p><br>
<p>Chatham and Pitt are the only inhabited islands, with the remaining smaller islands being conservation reserves with restricted or prohibited access. The livelihoods of the inhabitants depend on agriculture, with the island being an exporter of coldwater crayfish, and increasing tourism.</p><br>
<p>The names of the main islands, in the order of occupation are:</p><br>
<h3>Climate</h3><br>
<p>Chatham Islands have an oceanic climate characterised by a narrow temperature range and relatively frequent rainfall. Its isolated position far from any sizeable landmass renders the record temperature for main settlement Waitangi to be just 23.8 &deg;C. The climate is cool, wet and windy, with average high temperatures between 15 and in summer, and between 5 and in July, the Southern Hemisphere winter. Snow is extremely rare, having being recorded near sea level in July 2015 after several decades.</p><br>
<h3>Chathams time</h3><br>
<p>The International Date Line lies to the east of the Chathams, even though the islands lie east of 180° longitude. The Chathams observe their own time, 45 minutes ahead of New Zealand time, including during periods of daylight saving time; the Chatham Standard Time Zone is distinctive as one of very few which differ from others by a period other than a whole hour or half-hour. (New Zealand Time orients itself to 180° longitude.)</p><br>
<h2>Subdivision</h2><br>
<p>The Chatham Islands are subdivided into seven survey districts:</p><br>
<p>Rangitihi Survey District 43&deg;41&prime;50&Prime;S latitude, 176&deg;37&prime;46&Prime;W longitude (north)</p><br>
<p>Rekohu Survey District 43&deg;44&prime;11&Prime;S latitude, 176&deg;20&prime;48&Prime;W longitude (northeast)</p><br>
<p>Tawirikoko Survey District 43&deg;48&prime;37&Prime;S latitude, 176&deg;50&prime;00&Prime;W longitude (northwest)</p><br>
<p>Te Whanga Survey District 43&deg;49&prime;26&Prime;S latitude, 176&deg;32&prime;26&Prime;W longitude (center-north)</p><br>
<p>Oropuke Survey District 44&deg;01&prime;28&Prime;S latitude, 176&deg;36&prime;53&Prime;W longitude (south)</p><br>
<p>Rangimene Survey District 44&deg;02&prime;28&Prime;S latitude, 176&deg;19&prime;58&Prime;W longitude (southeast)</p><br>
<p>Rangiuria Survey District 44&deg;16&prime;49&Prime;S latitude, 176&deg;14&prime;58&Prime;W longitude (Pitt Island)</p><br>
<h2>Ecology</h2><br>
<p>The natural vegetation of the islands was a mixture of forest, scrubby heath, and swamp, but today most of the land is fern or pasture-covered, although there are some areas of dense forest and areas of peat bogs and other habitats. Of interest are the akeake trees, with branches trailing almost horizontally in the lee of the wind. The ferns in the forest understory include Blechnum discolor.</p><br>
<p>The islands are home to a rich bio-diversity including about fifty endemic plants adapted to the cold and the wind, such as Chatham Islands forget-me-not (Myosotidium hortensia), Chatham Islands sow-thistle (Embergeria grandifolia), rautini (Brachyglottis huntii), Chatham Islands kakaha (Astelia chathamica), soft speargrass (Aciphylla dieffenbachii), and Chatham Island akeake or Chatham Island tree daisy (Olearia traversiorum).</p><br>
<p>The islands are a breeding ground for huge flocks of seabirds and are home to a number of endemic birds, some of which are seabirds and others which live on the islands. The best known species are the magenta petrel (IUCN classification CR) and the black robin (IUCN classification EN), both of which came perilously close to extinction before drawing the attention of conservation efforts. Other endemic species are the Chatham oystercatcher, the Chatham gerygone, Chatham pigeon, Forbes&#39; parakeet, the Chatham snipe and the shore plover. The endemic Chatham shag ( classification CR), Pitt shag (IUCN classification EN) and the Chatham albatross (IUCN classification VU) are at risk of capture by a variety of fishing gear, including fishing lines, trawls, gillnets, and pots.</p><br>
<p>For accounts and notes on seabird species seen in the Chathams between 1960 and 1993 online.</p><br>
<p>A number of species have gone extinct since European settlement, including the three endemic species of rails, the Chatham raven, and the Chatham fernbird.</p><br>
<p>Also, a number of marine mammals are found in the waters of the Chathams, including New Zealand sea lions, leopard seals, and southern elephant seals. Many whale species are attracted to the rich food sources of the Chatham Rise.</p><br>
<p>Much of the natural forest of these islands has been cleared for farming, but Mangere and Rangatira Islands are now preserved as nature reserves to conserve some of these unique flora and fauna. Another threat to wildlife comes from introduced species which prey on the indigenous birds and reptiles, whereas on Mangere and Rangatira, livestock has been removed and native wildlife is recovering.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Moriori</h3><br>
<p>The first human inhabitants of the Chathams were Polynesian tribes who settled the islands about 1500 CE, and in their isolation became the Moriori. The former belief, which arose in the 1800s, was that the original Moriori migrated directly from the more northerly Polynesian islands, just as with the settlement of New Zealand by the ancestors of the Māori. However, linguistic research indicates instead that the ancestral Moriori were Māori wanderers from New Zealand.</p><br>
<p>As Howe (2003) puts it,</p><br>
<p>Scholarship over the past 40 years has radically revised the model offered a century earlier by Smith: the Moriori as a pre-Polynesian people have gone (the term Moriori is now a technical term referring to those ancestral Māori who settled the Chatham Islands).&#39;</p><br>
<p>The plants cultivated by the Māori arrivals were ill-suited for the colder Chathams, so the Moriori lived as hunter-gatherers and fishermen. While their new environment deprived them of the resources with which to build ocean-going craft for long voyages, the Moriori invented what was known as the waka korari, a semi-submerged craft, constructed of flax and lined with air bladders from kelp. This craft was used to travel to the outer islands on birding missions. The Moriori society was a peaceful society and bloodshed was outlawed by the chief Nunuku after generations of warfare. Arguments were solved by consensus or by duels rather than warfare, but at the first sign of bloodshed, the fight was over.</p><br>
<h3>European arrival</h3><br>
<p>The name "Chatham Islands" comes from the ship of the Vancouver Expedition, whose captain William R. Broughton landed on 29 November 1791, claimed possession for Great Britain and named the islands after the First Lord of the Admiralty, John Pitt, 2nd Earl of Chatham. A relative of his, Thomas Pitt, was a member of the Vancouver Expedition. Sealers and whalers soon started hunting in the surrounding ocean with the islands as their base. It is estimated that 10 to 20 percent of the indigenous Moriori soon died from diseases introduced by foreigners. The sealing and whaling industries ceased activities about 1861, while fishing remained as a major economic activity.</p><br>
<p>Chatham Islands date their anniversary on 29 November, and observe it 30 November.</p><br>
<h3>Māori Settlement</h3><br>
<p>On 19 November 1835 and later on 5 December, about 900 Ngāti Mutunga and Ngāti Tama previously resident in Te Whanganui-A-Tara (Wellington) arrived on the brig Lord Rodney. The first mate of the ship had been kidnapped and threatened with death unless the captain took the Māori settlers on board. The group, which included men, women and children, brought with them 78 tonnes of seed potato, 20 pigs and seven waka.</p><br>
<p>The incoming Māori were received and initially cared for by the local Moriori. Soon, Ngāti Mutunga and Ngāti Tama began to takahi, or walk the land, to lay claim to it. When it became clear that the visitors intended to stay, the Moriori withdrew to their marae at te Awapatiki. There, after holding a hui (consultation) to debate what to do about the Māori settlers, the Moriori decided to stay with their policy of non-aggression.</p><br>
<p>Ngāti Mutunga and Ngāti Tama in turn saw the meeting as a precursor to warfare on the part of Moriori and responded. The Māori attacked and in the ensuing action killed over 260 Moriori. A Moriori survivor recalled: " commenced to kill us like sheep... were terrified, fled to the bush, concealed ourselves in holes underground, and in any place to escape our enemies. It was of no avail; we were discovered and killed — men, women and children — indiscriminately." A Māori chief, Te Rakatau Katihe, said: "We took possession... in accordance with our custom, and we caught all the people. Not one escaped. Some ran away from us, these we killed; and others also we killed — but what of that? It was in accordance with our custom." Despite the Chatham Islands being made part of New Zealand in 1842, Māori kept Moriori slaves until 1863</p><br>
<p>After the killings, Moriori were forbidden to marry Moriori, or to have children with each other. All became slaves of the Māori until the 1860s. Many died in despair. Many Moriori women had children by their Māori masters. A number of Moriori women eventually married either Māori or European men. Some were taken away from the Chathams and never returned. Ernst Dieffenbach, who visited the Chathams on a New Zealand Company ship in 1840, reported that the Moriori were the virtual slaves of Māori and were severely mistreated, with death being a blessing. By the time the slaves were released in 1862, only 160 remained, hardly 10% of the 1835 population.</p><br>
<p>In 1840, Ngāti Mutunga decided to attack Ngāti Tama at their pa. They built a high staging next to the pa so they could fire down on their former allies. Fighting was still in progress when the New Zealand Company ship Cuba arrived as part of a scheme to buy land for settlement. The Treaty of Waitangi, at that stage, did not apply to the islands. The company negotiated a truce between the two warring tribes. In 1841, the New Zealand Company had proposed to establish a German colony on the Chathams. The proposal was discussed by the directors and John Ward signed an agreement with Karl Sieveking of Hamburg on 12 September 1841. However, when the Colonial Office said that the islands were to be part of the colony of New Zealand and any Germans settling there would be treated as aliens, Joseph Somes claimed that Ward had been acting on his own initiative. The proposed leader John Beit and the expedition went to Nelson instead.</p><br>
<p>The company was then able to purchase large areas of land at Port Hutt (which the Māori called Whangaroa) and Waitangi from Ngāti Mutanga and also large areas of land from Ngāti Tama. This did not stop Ngāti Mutunga from trying to get revenge for the death of one of their chiefs. They were satisfied after they killed the brother of a Ngāti Tama chief. The tribes agreed to an uneasy peace which was finally conformed in 1842.</p><br>
<p>An all-male group of German Lutheran missionaries arrived in 1843. After a group of women were sent out to join them, three years later, several marriages ensued, and many members of the present-day population can trace their ancestry back to the missionary families.</p><br>
<p>In 1865, the Māori leader Te Kooti was exiled on the Chatham Islands along with a large group of Māori rebels called the Hauhau, followers of Pai Mārire who had murdered missionaries and fought against government forces mainly on the East Coast of the North Island of New Zealand. The rebel prisoners were paid one shilling a day to work on sheep farms owned by the few European settlers. Sometimes they worked on road and track improvements. They were initially guarded by 26 guards, half of whom were Māori. They lived in whare along with their families. The prisoners helped build a redoubt of stone surrounded by a ditch and wall. Later, they built 3 stone prison cells.</p><br>
<h3>Present day conditions</h3><br>
<p>The Moriori community is organised as the Hokotehi Moriori Trust. The Moriori have received recognition from the Crown and the New Zealand government and some of their claims against those institutions for the generations of neglect and oppression have been accepted and acted on. Moriori are recognised as the original people of Rekohu. The Crown also recognised the Ngāti Mutunga Māori as having indigenous status in the Chathams by right of 160-odd years of occupation.</p><br>
<p>The population of the islands is 610, including members of both ethnic groups. In January 2005, the Moriori celebrated the opening of the new Kopinga Marae (meeting house).</p><br>
<p>Modern descendants of the 1835 Māori conquerors claimed a share in ancestral Māori fishing rights. This claim was granted. Now that the primordial population, the Moriori, have been recognised to be former Māori—over the objections of some of the Ngāti Mutunga—they too share in the ancestral Māori fishing rights. Both groups have been granted fishing quotas.</p><br>
<h2>Population</h2><br>
<p>Chatham and Pitt Islands are inhabited, with 600 residents in the 2013 Census. The town of Waitangi is the main settlement with some 200 residents. There are other villages such as Owenga, Te One and Kaingaroa, where there are two primary schools. A third school is on Pitt Island. There are also the fishing villages of Owenga and Port Hutt.</p><br>
<p>Waitangi facilities include a hospital with resident doctor, bank, several stores, and engineering and marine services. The main shipping wharf is located here.</p><br>
<p>According to the 2013 census there were 264 occupied dwellings, 69 unoccupied dwellings, and 3 dwellings under construction.</p><br>
<p>Of the residential population, 315 (52.5%) were male compared to 48.7% nationally, and 285 (47.5%) were female, compared to 51.3% nationally. The archipelago had a median age of 41.5 years, 3.5 years above the national median age of 38.0 years. People aged 65 and over made up 12.0% of the population, compared to 14.3% nationally, and people under 15 years made up 20.0%, compared to 20.4% nationally.</p><br>
<p>The Chatham Islands&#39; ethnicity is made up of (national figures in brackets): 73.5% European (74.0%), 59.3% Māori (14.9%), 1.1% Pacific Islanders (7.4%), 0.5% Asian (11.8%), 0.0% Middle Eastern, Latin American or African (1.2%), and 3.2% Other (1.7%). Note that where a person reported more than one ethnic group, they have been counted in each applicable group. As a result, percentages do not add up to 100.</p><br>
<p>The unemployment rate is of 2.5% of people 15 years and over, compared to 7.4% nationally. The median annual income of all people 15 years and over was $31,500, compared to $28,500 nationally. Of those, 31.0% earned under $20,000, compared to 38.2% nationally, while 31.0% earned over $50,000, compared to 26.7% nationally.</p><br>
<h2>Transport</h2><br>
<p>Visitors to the Chathams usually arrive by air from Auckland, Christchurch or Wellington (around 1.5 – 2 hours from Christchurch on a Convair 580) to Tuuta Airport on Chatham Island. While freight generally arrives by ship (2 days sailing time), the sea journey takes too long for many passengers, and is not always available.</p><br>
<p>The Chathams are part of New Zealand so there are no border controls or formalities on arrival, but visitors are advised to have prearranged their accommodation on the islands. Transport operators may refuse to carry passengers without accommodation bookings. There is no scheduled public transport but accommodation providers are normally able to arrange transport.</p><br>
<p>Tasman Empire Airways Ltd (TEAL) initially serviced the Chathams by air using flying boats. With the withdrawal of TEAL, the RNZAF maintained an infrequent service with Short Sunderland flying boats. NZ4111 was damaged on takeoff from Te Whanga Lagoon on 4 November 1959 and remains as a wreck on the island. The last flight by RNZAF flying boats was on 22 March 1967. For many years Bristol Freighter aircraft served the islands, a slow and noisy freight aircraft converted for carrying passengers by installing a removable passenger compartment equipped with airline seats and a toilet in part of the cargo hold. The air service primarily served to ship out high-value export crayfish products.</p><br>
<p>The grass landing field at Hapupu, at the northern end of the Island, proved a limiting factor, as few aircraft apart from the Bristol Freighter had both the range to fly to the islands and the ruggedness to land on the grass airstrip. Although other aircraft did use the landing field occasionally, they would often require repairs to fix damage resulting from the rough landing. Hapupu is also the site of the JM Barker (Hapupu) National Historic Reserve (one of only two in New Zealand) where there are momori rakau (Moriori tree carvings).</p><br>
<p>In 1981, after many years of requests by locals and the imminent demise of the ageing Bristol Freighters, the construction of a sealed runway at Karewa, Tuuta Airport, allowed more modern aircraft to land safely. The Chathams&#39; own airline, Air Chathams, now operates services to Auckland on Thursdays, Wellington on Mondays, Wednesdays and Fridays and Christchurch on Tuesdays. The timetable varies seasonally, but generally planes depart the Chathams around 10.30 am (Chathams Time) and arrive in the mainland around noon. There they refuel and reload, and depart again at around 1 pm back to the Chathams. Air Chathams operates twin turboprop Convair 580 aircraft in combi (freight and passenger) configurations and Fairchild Metroliners.</p><br>
<p>The ship Rangatira provided a freight service from Timaru to the Chatham Islands from March 2000 to August 2015. The MV Southern Tiare provides a freight service between Napier, Timaru and the Chathams.</p><br>
<p>There is a small section of tar sealed road between Waitangi and Te One, but the majority of the islands&#39; roads are gravel.</p><br>
<h2>Government</h2><br>
<h3>Electorates</h3><br>
<p>Until the 1980s, the Chathams were in the Lyttelton electorate, but since then they have formed part of the Rongotai general electorate, which mostly lies in Wellington. Paul Eagle is the MP for Rongotai. The Te Tai Tonga Māori seat (held since 2011 by Rino Tirikatene) includes the Chatham Islands.</p><br>
<h3>Local government</h3><br>
<p>Local government on the islands, uniquely within New Zealand, involves a council established by its own Act of Parliament, the Chatham Islands Council Act 1995 (Statute No 041, Commenced: 1 November 1995). The Chatham Islands Council operates as a district council with regional council functions, making it in effect a unitary authority but with not quite as many responsibilities as the others. The Council comprises a Mayor and eight Councillors, one of whom is also Deputy Mayor. Certain regional council functions are being administered by Environment Canterbury, the Canterbury Regional Council.</p><br>
<p>In the 2010 local government elections, Chatham Islands had NZ&#39;s highest rate of returned votes, with 71.3 percent voting.</p><br>
<h3>State services</h3><br>
<p>Policing is carried out by a sole-charge constable appointed by the Wellington police district, who has often doubled as an official for many government departments, including court registrar (Department for Courts), customs officer (New Zealand Customs Service) and immigration officer (Department of Labour – New Zealand Immigration Service).</p><br>
<p>A District Court judge sent from either the North Island or the South Island presides over court sittings, but urgent sittings may take place at the Wellington District Court.</p><br>
<p>Because of the isolation and small population, some of the rules governing daily activities undergo a certain relaxation. For example, every transport service operated solely on Great Barrier Island, the Chatham Islands or Stewart Island/Rakiura need not comply with section 70C of the Transport Act 1962 (the requirements for drivers to maintain driving-hours logbooks). Drivers subject to section 70B must nevertheless keep record of their driving hours in some form.</p><br>
<h3>Health</h3><br>
<p>From 1 July 2015 the Canterbury District Health Board assumed responsibility from the Hawkes Bay District Health Board for providing publicly funded health services for the island.</p><br>
<h3>Education</h3><br>
<p>Three schools are located on the Chathams, at Kaingaroa, Te One, and Pitt Island. Pitt Island and Kaingaroa are staffed by sole charge principals, while Te One has three teachers and a principal. These schools cater for children from year 1 to 8. No secondary school is present on the Chathams. The majority of secondary school-aged students leave the island for boarding schools in mainland New Zealand. A small number remain on the island and carry out their secondary education through correspondence.</p><br>
<h2>Economy</h2><br>
<p>Most of the Chatham Island economy is based on fishing and crayfishing, with only a fragment of in adventure tourism. This economic mix has been stable for the past 50 years, as little infrastructure or population is present to engage in higher levels of industrial or telecommunications activity.</p><br>
<p>Air Chathams has its head office in Te One.</p><br>
<h3>Electricity generation</h3><br>
<p>Two 225-kW wind turbines and diesel generators provide power on Chatham island, at costs of five to ten times that of electricity on the main islands of New Zealand. During 2014, 65% of the electricity was generated from diesel generators, the balance from wind.</p><br>
<p>The Painted Desert is a United States desert of badlands in the Four Corners area running from near the east end of the Grand Canyon National Park southeast into the Petrified Forest National Park. It is most easily accessed in the north portion of The Petrified Forest National Park. The Painted Desert is known for its brilliant and varied colors, that not only include the more common red rock, but even shades of lavender.</p><br>
<p>The Painted Desert was named by an expedition under Francisco Vázquez de Coronado on his 1540 quest to find the Seven Cities of Cibola, which he located some forty miles east of The Petrified Forest National Park. Finding the cities were not made of gold, Coronado sent an expedition to find the Colorado River to resupply him. Passing through the wonderland of colors, they named the area "El Desierto Pintado" - The Painted Desert.</p><br>
<p>Much of the Painted Desert within the Petrified Forest National Park is protected as the Petrified Forest National Wilderness Area where motorized travel is limited. But the park offers both easy and longer hikes into the colored hills. The Painted Desert continues north into the Navajo Nation where off-road travel is by permit.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>The desert is composed of stratified layers of easily erodible siltstone, mudstone, and shale of the Triassic Chinle Formation. These fine grained rock layers contain abundant iron and manganese compounds which provide the pigments for the various colors of the region. Thin resistant lacustrine limestone layers and volcanic flows cap the mesas. Numerous layers of silicic volcanic ash occur in the Chinle and provide the silica for the petrified logs of the area. The erosion of these layers has resulted in the formation of the badlands topography of the region.</p><br>
<p>In the southern portions of the desert the remains of a Triassic period coniferous forest have fossilized over millions of years. Wind, water and soil erosion continue to change the face of the landscape by shifting sediment and exposing layers of the Chinle Formation. An assortment of fossilized prehistoric plants and animals are found in the region, as well as dinosaur tracks and the evidence of early human habitation.</p><br>
<h2>Area and climate</h2><br>
<p>The Painted Desert extends roughly from Cameron&ndash;Tuba City southeast to past Holbrook and the Petrified Forest National Park. The desert is about 120 mi long by about 60 mi wide, making it roughly 7,500 square miles in area. Bordering southwest and south is the Mogollon Plateau, and on the plateau&#39;s south border the Mogollon Rim, the north border of the Arizona transition zone.</p><br>
<p>Owing to the strong rain shadow of the Mogollon Rim, the Painted Desert has a cold desert climate (Köppen BWk), with hot, dry summers and cold, though virtually snow-free winters. The annual precipitation is the lowest in northern Arizona and in many places is lower even than Phoenix.</p><br>
<h2>Accessibility</h2><br>
<p>Much of the region is accessible only by foot or unpaved road though major highways and paved roads cut across the area. The towns of Cameron and Tuba City, both on the Navajo Nation, are two major settlements. A permit is required for all backroad travel on the Navajo Nation.</p><br>
<p>The Souhegan River is a tributary of the Merrimack River in the northeastern United States. It is 33.8 mi long with a drainage area of 171 square miles and flows north and east through southern New Hampshire to the Merrimack River.</p><br>
<p>The river begins in New Ipswich, New Hampshire, at the junction of the river&#39;s South Branch and West Branch. Flowing northeast, it passes through the center of Greenville and descends through a narrow valley to Wilton, where it turns east. The river valley broadens below Wilton, and the river passes through the center of Milford, crosses the southern portion of Amherst, and enters the town of Merrimack. Shortly upstream of the town center, the river passes over Wildcat Falls, then crosses under the Everett Turnpike and USA Route 3 to reach the Merrimack River.</p><br>
<p>The river is used for water supplies, a small amount of hydropower, and recreation. There are 28 threatened or endangered species sharing the watershed with 35,000 people. It is part of the New Hampshire Rivers Management Protection Program.</p><br>
<p>It was one of two rivers studied by the New Hampshire Department of Environmental Services to reach data and recommendations about allowable "instream flow".</p><br>
<h2>Etymology</h2><br>
<p>The name "Souhegan" comes from the language of the Native American Algonquins, meaning "waiting and watching place". Tribal fishermen set weirs across the rapids, and then waited and watched for fish, including salmon, alewives, sturgeon, and eels.</p><br>
<p>The name of Skowhegan, Maine, comes from the same term.</p><br>
<p>The British Museum Reading Room, situated in the centre of the Great Court of the British Museum, used to be the main reading room of the British Library. In 1997, this function moved to the new British Library building at St Pancras, London, but the Reading Room remains in its original form at the British Museum.</p><br>
<p>Designed by Sydney Smirke and opened in 1857, the Reading Room was in continual use until its temporary closure for renovation in 1997. It was reopened in 2000, and from 2007 to 2014 it was used to stage temporary exhibitions. It has since been closed while its future use remains under discussion.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Construction and design</h3><br>
<p>In the early 1850s the museum library was in need of a larger reading room and the then-Keeper of Printed Books, Antonio Panizzi, following an earlier competition idea by William Hosking, came up with the thought of a round room in the central courtyard. The building was designed by Sydney Smirke and was constructed between 1854 and 1857. The building used cast iron, concrete, glass and the latest technology in ventilation and heating. The dome, inspired by the Pantheon in Rome, has a diameter of 42.6 metres but is not technically free standing: constructed in segments on cast iron, the ceiling is suspended and made out of papier-mâché. Book stacks built around the reading room were made of iron to take the huge weight and add fire protection. There were forty kilometres of shelving in the stacks prior to the library&#39;s relocation to the new site.</p><br>
<h3>The British Museum Library</h3><br>
<p>The Reading Room was officially opened on 2 May 1857 with a breakfast (that included champagne & ice cream) laid out on the catalogue desks. A public viewing was held between 8 and 16 May which attracted over 62,000 visitors. Tickets to it included a plan of the library.</p><br>
<p>Regular users had to apply in writing and be issued a readers ticket by the Principal Librarian. During the period of the British Library, access was restricted to registered researchers only; however, readers credentials were generally available to anyone who could show that they were a serious researcher. The Reading Room was used by a large number of famous figures, including notably Sun Yat-sen, Karl Marx, Oscar Wilde, Friedrich Hayek, Bram Stoker, Mahatma Gandhi, Rudyard Kipling, George Orwell, George Bernard Shaw, Mark Twain, Vladimir Lenin (using the name Jacob Richter), Virginia Woolf, Arthur Rimbaud, Mohammad Ali Jinnah, H. G. Wells and Sir Arthur Conan Doyle.</p><br>
<p>In 1973, the British Library Act 1972 detached the library department from the British Museum, but it continued to host the now separated British Library in the same Reading Room and building as the museum until 1997.</p><br>
<h3>Closure and restoration</h3><br>
<p>In 1997 the British Library moved to its own specially constructed building next to St Pancras Station and all the books and shelving were removed. As part of the redevelopment of the Great Court, the Reading Room was fully renovated and restored, including the papier-mâché ceiling which was repaired to its original colour scheme, having previously undergone radical redecorations (the initial design of the roof was considered excessive at the time).</p><br>
<p>The Reading Room was reopened in 2000, allowing all visitors, and not just library ticket-holders, to enter it. It held a collection of 25,000 books focusing on the cultures represented in the museum along with an information centre and the Walter and Leonore Annenberg Centre.</p><br>
<h3>Exhibition space</h3><br>
<p>In 2007 the books and facilities installed in 2000 were removed, and the Reading Room was relaunched as a venue for special exhibitions, beginning with one featuring China’s Terracotta Army. The general library for visitors (Paul Hamlyn Library) moved to a room accessible through nearby Room 2, but closed permanently on 13 August 2011. This is an earlier library that has also had distinguished users, including Thomas Babington Macaulay, William Thackeray, Robert Browning, Giuseppe Mazzini, Charles Darwin and Charles Dickens.</p><br>
<h3>Uncertain future</h3><br>
<p>In 2014, the British Museum opened its new World Conservation and Exhibitions Centre that included a specially constructed exhibition space. The museum has been consulting on the future of the Reading Room, but as of June 2014, its future is still undecided.</p><br>
<p>Lamma Island, also known as Pok Liu Chau or simply Pok Liu, is the third largest island in Hong Kong. Administratively, it is part of the Islands District.</p><br>
<h2>Name</h2><br>
<p>Lamma Island got named Lamma only because of a chart reading error by Alexander Dalrymple in the 1760s. He had acquired a Portuguese chart to the entrances to the Pearl River and, close to the west of the island, the Portuguese owner had written "Lama". Dalrymple misinterpreted that as the name of the island. However, it was a Portuguese notation as to the holding (consistency of the seabed from the point of view of anchoring there), which was (and is) mud – in Portuguese "lama".</p><br>
<p>In all the early charts the name was spelled with only one "m". So the island acquired a British name by error and one that subsequently was sinicized by its name being rendered phonetically in characters ("Lam a" can mean "south fork" in Cantonese), with the original muddle being all but forgotten. At some point, things became further obscured by the addition of the second "m" in the English spelling.</p><br>
<p>In ancient times, Lamma used to be named as Pok Liu or Pok Liu Chau.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Lamma Island is located to the southwest of Hong Kong Island. It is the third largest island of Hong Kong, with an area of 13.55 km&sup2; and a length of 7 km. The northern village is called Yung Shue Wan (Banyan Tree Bay) and the eastern village is called Sok Kwu Wan (Rainbow Bay). Few people live on the southern part of Lamma. Access for much of this part is by hiking or private boat. Sham Wan, an important breeding site for sea turtles, is located there.</p><br>
<p>Mount Stenhouse (, Shan Tei Tong) is the tallest mountain in Lamma 353 m above sea level, situated between Sok Kwu Wan and Sham Wan. Unusually shaped rocks can be found all over this mountain, but a gruelling hike is necessary to access these.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>According to archaeological findings, human settlement on the northern and eastern part of Lamma Island can be traced back to around 4000-3000 BC, the Middle Neolithic and Bronze Ages. Yung Shue Ha, one of Lammas earliest villages was settled in the early 19th century by a clan from Chinas Bao&#39;an County.</p><br>
<h2>Demographics</h2><br>
<p>Lamma has an estimated population of 5,900 people as of 2014. However, with future developments such as a planned beach community in Sok Kwu Wan the population capacity is expected to double to 11,000 residents.</p><br>
<p>Actor Chow Yun-fat grew up on the island in the village of Wang Long near Yung Shue Wan. His relatives used to operate a seafood/pigeon restaurant called "Shau Kee" in the main village.</p><br>
<p>Lamma has a significant Western and international population. The island has had a reputation for alternative lifestyles, hippies, and a relaxed attitude, but Lamma is being urbanized and property prices are on the increase, because of the attraction of this lifestyle.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>In contrast to Hong Kong Island and Kowloon, Lamma is peaceful and tranquil with an abundance of natural scenery. Buildings higher than three storeys are prohibited and there are no automobiles but diminutive fire trucks and ambulances, as well as distinctive open-back vehicles to transport construction materials. The community&#39;s only means of transport is either by foot or bicycle.</p><br>
<p>Lamma provides an alternative to the hectic life in the city. Property and rents are cheap compared with those of central Hong Kong. These factors have attracted a significant expatriate community to Lamma Island. It is also popular with younger people and a haven for artists and musicians.</p><br>
<h2>Yung Shue Wan</h2><br>
<p>Yung Shue Wan (Banyan Bay) is the most populated area on Lamma Island. Several decades ago, it was the centre of the plastics industry. The factories have now been replaced by seafood restaurants, pubs, grocery stores and shops which sell oriental and Indian-style handicraft. Hung Shing Yeh Beach, Lamma Power Station and Lamma Winds are also located in the northern part of the island.</p><br>
<h2>Sok Kwu Wan</h2><br>
<p>The big street of Sok Kwu Wan consists mainly of seafood restaurants. Sok Kwu Wan has the largest fish farming site in Hong Kong. Tourists can barbecue and fish at Lo Shing Beach which is a ten-minute walk from the village. The trail between Yung Shue Wan and Sok Kwu Wan is surrounded by grassland and offers a picturesque walk. From there one can see a nice portion of the coastline of the island. It takes roughly an hour to walk the trail.</p><br>
<p>Walkers may notice a few caves on the trail near Sok Kwu Wan, labelled on tourist signs as kamikaze grottos. These caves were dug out by the Japanese during the war, to store munitions alongside the suicide boats. When the British Navy reclaimed Hong Kong, they discovered rows of speedboats with explosive rigged to the bow in Sok Kwu Wan.</p><br>
<p>In addition to the caves, the Japanese also dug tunnels into the island&#39;s peaks, including two known tunnels on Ling Kok Shan and one on Mt. Stenhouse.</p><br>
<h2>Sham Wan</h2><br>
<p>Sham Wan is one of the five most important archaeological sites in Hong Kong. The bay is the site of an important Bronze Age settlement which was unearthed by archaeologists in the 1970s. It yielded evidence of people living on Lamma during the "Middle Neolithic" phase (approximately 3800-3000 BC).</p><br>
<p>It is also a place for green sea turtles to lay eggs. The endangered green turtles are a special group of marine organisms with distinctive navigation behaviour between their nesting, breeding, development and reproduction sites. As Sham Wan is the only existing nesting site for them in Hong Kong, every year there is a period of restricted access to it from June 1 to October 31 to allow the turtles to breed. The breeding site is about 5,100 m&sup2;.</p><br>
<p>Yung Shue Wan</p><br>
<h2>Traditional festivals</h2><br>
<p>Tin Hau temples are typical places of worship in Hong Kong&#39;s coastal communities because Tin Hau is believed to be the goddess of the sea and of fishermen, protecting them and ensuring full nets. There are three Tin Hau temples on Lamma, located in Yung Shue Wan, Sok Kwu Wan, and Luk Chau Village.</p><br>
<p>The Tin Hau Festival (twenty-third of the third month of the Lunar Calendar) is widely celebrated by the fishermen&#39;s communities in Lamma. Cantonese opera and floral paper offerings known as Fa Pau at both Sok Kwu Wan and Yung Shue Wan are the highlights of the celebration.</p><br>
<p>Lamma Island is also one of the few remaining places in Hong Kong where traditional Chinese New Year celebrations still take place: at the stroke of midnight, fireworks will be set off by the main families of the villages to frighten away the evil spirits, sending off a deafening thunder that can last up to 30 minutes.</p><br>
<h2>Transportation</h2><br>
<p>There are regular ferry services to Yung Shue Wan and Sok Kwu Wan from Central on Hong Kong Island, as well as to Yung Shue Wan via Pak Kok, and to Sok Kwu Wan via Mo Tat Wan, from Aberdeen. It takes about 25 minutes by ferry between Yung Shue Wan and Central. There are no cars on Lamma Island.</p><br>
<p>Two ferries collided off Yung Shue Wan on 1 October 2012 at 8:20 pm HKT. With 39 killed and 92 injured, the incident was the deadliest maritime disaster in Hong Kong since 1971.</p><br>
<p>The Sunda Strait  is the strait between the Indonesian islands of Java and Sumatra. It connects the Java Sea to the Indian Ocean. The name comes from the Indonesian term Pasundan, meaning "West Java". It also comes from the name of the Sundanese people, the native people of West Java, with the Javanese people being found mostly in Central and East Java.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The strait stretches in a roughly north-east/south-west orientation, with a minimum width of 24 km at its north-eastern end between Cape Tua on Sumatra and Cape Pujat on Java. It is very deep at its western end but as it narrows to the east it becomes much shallower, with a depth of only 20 m (65 feet) in parts of the eastern end. This makes it notoriously difficult to navigate, with sandbanks, very strong tidal flows and man-made obstructions such as oil platforms off the Java coast. It had been an important shipping route for centuries, especially during the period when the Dutch East India Company used it as the gateway to the Spice Islands of Indonesia (1602-1799). However, the strait&#39;s narrowness, shallowness, and lack of accurate charting makes it unsuitable for many modern large ships, most of which use the Strait of Malacca instead.</p><br>
<p>The strait is dotted by a number of strait islands, including Sangiang (Thwart-the-Way), Sebesi, Sebuku, Panaitan (Prince&#39;s) and most notably, the Krakatau Islands: Lang (Panjang or Rakata Kecil), Verlaten (Sertung), Krakatau, and Anak Krakatoa. Many of these (including Sebesi and Panaitan) are volcanic in origin, but the best known volcano is Krakatau. The islands in the strait and the nearby surrounding regions of Java and Sumatra were devastated by the eruption of Krakatau in 1883, primarily due to intense pumice fall and huge tsunamis caused by the collapse of the volcano. The eruption drastically altered the topography of the strait, with as much as 18–21 km³ of ignimbrite being deposited over an area of 1.1 million km² around the volcano. Some areas have never been resettled (such as the coastal region of Java now incorporated into the Ujung Kulon National Park), but much of the coastline is now very densely populated.</p><br>
<h2>The Battle of Sunda Strait</h2><br>
<p>On March 1, 1942, the Battle of Sunda Strait—part of the larger Battle of the Java Sea—took place when the Allied cruisers HMAS Perth and USS Houston encountered a Japanese amphibious landing force near Bantam commanded by Rear Admiral Kenzaburo Hara, which included a light cruiser and eleven destroyers, four heavy cruisers and a light aircraft carrier. The two Allied cruisers were sunk, while a Japanese minesweeper and a transport vessel were sunk by friendly fire.</p><br>
<h2>Planned bridge</h2><br>
<p>In the 1960s proposals were made for a bridge across the Sunda Strait and in the 1990s further suggestions arose. A new plan was announced in October 2007 which would entail utilising the islands of Ular, Sangiang and Prajurit to create a four-part suspension bridge reaching 70 m above sea level with a maximum span of 3 kilometers, nearly 50% longer than the current record holder, the Akashi Kaikyō Bridge. Construction was projected beginning in 2014 if funding, estimated to be at least US$10 billion, could be secured.</p><br>
<p>An accord was signed in April 2012 with China Railway Construction Corporation for an $11 billion road and double track rail bridge. However, in November 2014, the incoming government of President Joko Widodo shelved plans to build the bridge.</p><br>
<h2>Islands in the strait</h2><br>
<p>Anak Krakatoa</p><br>
<p>Calmeyer</p><br>
<p>Krakatau</p><br>
<p>Danan, volcanic cone on Krakatoa</p><br>
<p>Perboewatan, volcanic cone on Krakatoa</p><br>
<p>Rakata, volcanic cone on Krakatoa</p><br>
<p>Legundi</p><br>
<p>Panaitan (Prince&#39;s Island)</p><br>
<p>Panjang, or Rakata Ketjil (Lang)</p><br>
<p>Polish Hat, destroyed in 1883 eruption of Krakatoa</p><br>
<p>Sangiang (Thwart-the-way)</p><br>
<p>Sebesi</p><br>
<p>Sebuku</p><br>
<p>Sertung (Verlaten)</p><br>
<p>Steers (island)</p><br>
<p>Tabuan</p><br>
<h3>Bays</h3><br>
<p>Lampung Bay, Sumatra</p><br>
<p>Semangka Bay, Sumatra</p><br>
<p>Welcome Bay, Java</p><br>
<p>The Lombok Strait , is a strait connecting the Java Sea to the Indian Ocean, and is located between the islands of Bali and Lombok in Indonesia. The Gili Islands are on the Lombok side.</p><br>
<p>Its narrowest point is at its southern opening, with a width of about 20 km between the islands of Lombok and Nusa Penida, in the middle of the strait. At the northern opening, it is 40 km across. Its total length is about 60 km. Because it is 250 m deep — much deeper than the Strait of Malacca — ships that draw too much water to pass through Malacca (so-called "post Malaccamax" vessels) often use the Lombok Strait, instead.</p><br>
<p>The Lombok Strait is notable as one of the main passages for the Indonesian Throughflow that exchanges water between the Indian Ocean and the Pacific Ocean.</p><br>
<p>It is also part of the biogeographical boundary between the fauna of Indomalaya ecozone and the distinctly different fauna of Australasia. The boundary is known as the Wallace Line, for Alfred Russel Wallace, who first remarked upon the striking difference between animals of Indo-Malaysia from those of Australasia and how abrupt the boundary was between the two biomes.</p><br>
<p>Biologists believe it was the depth of the Lombok Strait itself that kept the animals on either side isolated from one another. When sea levels dropped during the Pleistocene ice age, the islands of Bali, Java and Sumatra were all connected to one another and to the mainland of Asia. They shared the Asian fauna. The Lombok Strait&#39;s deep water kept Lombok and the Lesser Sunda archipelago isolated from the Asian mainland. These islands were, instead, colonized by Australasian fauna.</p><br>
<p>The Coast Mountains are a major mountain range in the Pacific Coast Ranges of western North America, extending from southwestern Yukon through the Alaska Panhandle and virtually all of the Coast of British Columbia south to the Fraser River. The mountain range&#39;s name derives from its proximity to the sea coast, and it is often referred to as the Coast Range. The range includes volcanic and non-volcanic mountains and the extensive ice fields of the Pacific and Boundary Ranges, and the northern end of the volcanic system known as the Cascade Volcanoes. The Coast Mountains are part of a larger mountain system called the Pacific Coast Ranges or the Pacific Mountain System, which includes the Cascade Range, the Insular Mountains, the Olympic Mountains, the Oregon Coast Range, the California Coast Ranges, the Saint Elias Mountains and the Chugach Mountains. The Coast Mountains are also part of the American Cordilleraa Spanish term for an extensive chain of mountain rangesthat consists of an almost continuous sequence of mountain ranges that form the western backbone of North America, Central America, South America and Antarctica.</p><br>
<p>The Coast Mountains are approximately 1,600 km long and average 300 km in width. The range&#39;s southern and southeastern boundaries are surrounded by the Fraser River and the Interior Plateau while its far northwestern edge is delimited by the Kelsall and Tatshenshini Rivers at the north end of the Alaska Panhandle, beyond which are the Saint Elias Mountains, and by Champagne Pass in the Yukon Territory. Covered in dense temperate rainforest on its western exposures, the range rises to heavily glaciated peaks, including the largest temperate-latitude ice fields in the world. On its eastern flanks, the range tapers to the dry Interior Plateau and the subarctic boreal forests of the Skeena Mountains and Stikine Plateau.</p><br>
<p>The Coast Mountains are part of the Pacific Ring of Firethe ring of volcanoes and associated mountains around the Pacific Oceanand contain some of British Columbia&#39;s highest mountains. Mount Waddington is the highest mountain of the Coast Mountains and the highest that lies entirely within British Columbia, located northeast of the head of Knight Inlet with an elevation of 4,019 m.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The Coast Mountains consists of three subdivisions known as the Pacific Ranges, the Kitimat Ranges, and the Boundary Ranges. The Pacific Ranges are the southernmost subdivision of the Coast Mountains, extending from the lower stretches of the Fraser River to Bella Coola. Included in this subdivision is four of the five major coastal icecaps in the southern Coast Mountains. These are the largest temperate-latitude icecaps in the world and fuel a number of major rivers. Other than logging and a large ski resort at the resort town of Whistler, most of the land in the range is completely undeveloped. Mount Waddington, the highest mountain of the Coast Mountains, lies in the Waddington Range of the Pacific Ranges.</p><br>
<p>Just north of the Pacific Ranges lies the central subdivision known as the Kitimat Ranges. This subdivision extends from the Bella Coola River and Burke Channel in the south to the Nass River in the north.</p><br>
<p>The third and northernmost subdivision of the Coast Mountains is the Boundary Ranges, extending from the Nass River in the south to the Kelsall River in the north. It is also the largest subdivision of the Coast Mountains, spanning the British Columbia-Alaska border and northwards into Yukon flanking the west side of the Yukon River drainage as far as Champagne Pass, north of which being the Yukon Ranges. The Boundary Ranges include several large icefields, including the Juneau Icefield between Juneau, Alaska and Atlin Lake in British Columbia, and the Stikine Icecap, which lies between the lower Stikine River and the Whiting River.</p><br>
<p>Because the Coast Mountains are just east of the Pacific Ocean, they have a profound effect on British Columbia&#39;s climate by forcing moisture-laden air off the Pacific Ocean to rise, dropping heavy rainfalls on the western slopes where lush forests exist. This precipitation is among the heaviest in North America. The eastern slopes are relatively dry and less steep and protect the British Columbia Interior from the Pacific weather systems, resulting in dry warm summers and dry cold winters.</p><br>
<p>Beyond the eastern slopes is a 154,635 km&sup2; plateau occupying the southern and central portions of British Columbia called the Interior Plateau. Included within the Interior Plateau is a coalescing series of layered flood basalt lava flows. These sequences of fluid volcanic rock cover about 25,000 km&sup2; of the Interior Plateau and have a volume of about 1,800 km3, forming a large volcanic plateau constructed atop of the Interior Plateau. North of the Interior Plateau on the range&#39;s northeastern slopes lies a huge mountainous area known by geographers as the Interior Mountains, which includes the neighbouring Skeena, Cassiar and Hazelton Mountains.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<h3>Origins and growth</h3><br>
<p>The Coast Mountains consists of deformed igneous and metamorphosed structurally complex pre-Tertiary rocks. These originated in diverse locations around the globe: the area is built of several different terranes of different ages with a broad range of tectonic origins. In addition, oceanic crust under the Pacific Ocean is being subducted at the southern portion of the range to form a north-south line of volcanoes called the Garibaldi Volcanic Belt, a northern extension of the Cascade Volcanoes in the northwestern United States, and contains the most explosive young volcanoes in Canada. Further north the northwesterly structural trend of the Coast Mountains lies partly in a large continental rift responsible for the creation of several volcanoes. These volcanoes form part of the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province, the most volcanically active area in Canada.</p><br>
<h4>Insular and Omineca Arc eruptive periods</h4><br>
<p>The first event began 130 million years ago when a group of active volcanic islands approached a pre-existing continental margin and coastline of North America. These volcanic islands, known as the Insular Islands by geoscientists, were formed on a pre-existing tectonic plate called the Insular Plate by subduction of the former Farallon Plate to the west during the early Paleozoic era. This subduction zone records another subduction zone to the east under an ancient ocean basin between the Insular Islands and the former continental margin of North America called the Bridge River Ocean. This arrangement of two parallel subduction zones is unusual in that very few twin subduction zones exist on Earth; the Philippine Mobile Belt off the southeastern coast of Asia is an example of a modern twin subduction zone. As the Insular Plate drew closer to the pre-existing continental margin by ongoing subduction under the Bridge River Ocean, the Insular Islands drew closer to the former continental margin and coastline of western North America, supporting a pre-existing volcanic arc on the former continental margin of North America called the Omineca Arc. As the North American Plate drifted west and the Insular Plate drifted east to the old continental margin of western North America, the Bridge River Ocean eventually closed by ongoing subduction under the Bridge River Ocean. This subduction zone eventually jammed and shut down completely 115 million years ago, ending the Omineca Arc and the Insular Islands collided, forming the Insular Belt. Compression resulting from this collision crushed, fractured and folded rocks along the old continental margin. The Insular Belt then welded onto the pre-existing continental margin by magma that eventually cooled to create a large mass of igneous rock, creating a new continental margin. This large mass of igneous rock is the largest granite outcropping in North America.</p><br>
<h4>Coast Range Arc eruptive period</h4><br>
<p>The final event began when the Farallon Plate continued to subduct under the new continental margin after the Insular Plate and Insular Islands collided with the old continental margin, supporting a new continental volcanic arc called the Coast Range Arc about 100 million years ago during the Late Cretaceous period. Magma rising from the Farallon Plate under the new continental margin ascended through the newly accreted Insular Belt, injecting huge quantities of granite into older igneous rocks of the Insular Belt. At the surface, new volcanoes were built along the continental margin. Named after the Coast Mountains, the basement of this arc was likely Early Cretaceous and Late Jurassic intrusions from the Insular Islands.</p><br>
<p>One of the major aspects that changed early during the Coast Range Arc was the status of the northern end of the Farallon Plate, a portion now known as the Kula Plate. This started a period of mountain building that affected much of western North America called the Laramide orogeny. In particular a large area of dextral transpression and southwest-directed thrust faulting was active from 75 to 66 million years ago. Much of the record of this deformation has been overridden by Tertiary age structures and the zone of Cretaceous dextral thrust faulting appears to have been widespread. It was also during this period when massive amounts of molten granite intruded highly deformed ocean rocks and assorted fragments from pre-existing island arcs, largely remnants of the Bridge River Ocean. This molten granite burned the old oceanic sediments into a glittering medium-grade metamorphic rock called schist. The older intrusions of the Coast Range Arc were then deformed under the heat and pressure of later intrusions, turning them into layered metamorphic rock known as gneiss. In some places, mixtures of older intrusive rocks and the original oceanic rocks have been distorted and warped under intense heat, weight and stress to create unusual swirled patters known as migmatite, appearing to have been nearly melted in the procedure.</p><br>
<p>Volcanism began to decline along the length of the arc about 60 million years ago during the Albian and Aptian faunal stages of the Cretaceous period. However, other geologic studies determined the Kula Plate moved at a rate as fast as 200 mm per year.</p><br>
<h2>High-prominence peaks</h2><br>
<h2>Mountain ranges</h2><br>
<p>Mount Waddington, once known as Mystery Mountain, is the highest peak in the Coast Mountains of British Columbia, Canada. Although Mount Fairweather and Mount Quincy Adams, which straddle the US border between Alaska and British Columbia are taller, Mount Waddington is the highest peak that lies entirely within British Columbia. It and the subrange which surround it, known as the Waddington Range, stands at the heart of the Pacific Ranges, a remote and extremely difficult set of mountains and river valleys.</p><br>
<p>It is not so far north as its extreme Arctic-like conditions might indicate and Mount Waddington and its attendant peaks pose some of the most serious expedition mountaineering to be had in North America &mdash; and some of the most extreme relief and spectacular mountain scenery.</p><br>
<p>From Waddington&#39;s 13,186 ft fang to sea level at the heads of Bute and Knight Inlets is only a few miles; across the 10,000 ft gorges of the Homathko and the Klinaklini Rivers stand mountains almost as high, and icefields even vaster and whiter, only a few aerial miles away, with a maw deeper than the Grand Canyon, comparable in relief to the Himalayas (to which the terrain of British Columbia was compared by colonial-era travellers).</p><br>
<p>Mount Waddington is the namesake of the Mount Waddington Regional District, which takes in the seaward slope of the Waddington Range and the adjoining coastline and parts of northern Vancouver Island adjacent to Queen Charlotte Strait.</p><br>
<h2>Discovery and exploration</h2><br>
<p>In 1925, while on a trip to Mount Arrowsmith, Vancouver Island, Don and Phyllis Munday spotted what they believed to be a peak taller than Mount Robson, then accepted as the tallest peak entirely within British Columbia. In the words of Don Munday, "The compass showed the alluring peak stood along a line passing a little east of Bute Inlet and perhaps 150 miles away, where blank spaces on the map left ample room for many nameless mountains." While there is debate as to whether the peak they saw was Mount Waddington (Don Munday observed that the feat is impossible), they almost certainly saw a peak in the Waddington Range, and this led the Mundays to explore that area.</p><br>
<p>Over the next decade, the Mundays mounted several expeditions into the area in an attempt to climb it. Known to them as "The Mystery Mountain", in 1927 the height was measured at 13,260 feet by triangulation; they reached the lower summit in 1928, deeming the main summit too risky. On their recommendation the Geographical Names Board of Canada gave it the name Mount Waddington after Alfred Waddington who was a proponent of a road route, known as Waddington&#39;s Road, and again later the same for a railway, via the Homathko River valley and Bute Inlet, which would connect to Vancouver Island via Seymour Narrows.</p><br>
<p>In the summer of 1934, two expeditions attempted to climb the mountain. The first expedition, made up of climbers from Winnipeg, made their attempt on the northwestern flank which had not been explored by the Mundays. After crossing Tatlayoko Lake and making their way down the Homathko River, they then spent two days constructing a bridge over Nude Creek before reaching the Tiedemann Glacier on June 23. It took them three days to reach the shoulder of Mt. Waddington at 3,200 m. They attempted the summit on June 28 but poor weather and route conditions on the final tower forced them to retreat, 180 m from the top. The second expedition, consisting of climbers from British Columbia, made their attempt from the southeast. On June 23, they established their base camp on the Franklin Glacier. The ascent abruptly ended three days later when one of the climbers fell to his death from the southeast ridge. In 1935, a group of climbers from the Sierra Club of California made three attempts from their base camp at the Dais Glacier. The group failed in two attempts on the south face due to stormy conditions, poor route conditions and falling ice. Two climbers succeeded in reaching the northwest summit (first climbed by the Mundays) on a third attempt but proceeded no further.</p><br>
<h2>First ascent</h2><br>
<p>On July 4, 1936, Fritz Wiessner, Bill House, Elizabeth Woolsey and Alan Willcox reached the head of the Knight Inlet. For the next twelve days they ferried loads to their base camp at Icefall Point on the Dais Glacier. While on the glacier, they were joined by another expedition led by members of the British Columbia Mountaineering Club and the Sierra Club. Wiessner and House agreed to allow the others a first chance at the summit but this group failed to find a route up the south face.</p><br>
<p>On July 20, Wiessner and House first attempted the line of a great couloir that comes directly down between the main summit tower and the northwest peak. It was an excellent line for quickly ascending but they were unable to traverse onto the south face proper due to poor rock conditions and were forced to retreat to base camp. By 3 am the next morning they were already climbing up a couloir to the right of the face. Good weather the past few days had cleared most of the snow away from the ledges making for good climbing conditions. Following the left branch of the couloir, they reached a snow patch in the middle of the face. The final 1,000 ft of the south face then presented a fierce hurdle of "sheer forbidding-looking rocks" as noted by Wiessner. While Wiessner initially started in boots, he quickly changed to rope-soled shoes and gave his ice axe and extra rope to House. Wiessner led several pitches up technically difficult rock including several overhangs. After traversing east across the face they rested on a ledge just below the southeastern ridge, a full 9 hours since leaving the snow patch on the south face. After climbing a short chimney they finally reached the small snowy mass at the top, 13 hours after their start in base camp. They aborted their earlier plan of descending the shorter north face and retraced their ascent line, reaching their tent on the Dais Glacier at 2 am. The ascent to the summit and back to base camp had taken over 23 hours.</p><br>
<h2>Notable ascents</h2><br>
<p>1936 South Face FA by Fritz Wiessner and Bill House.</p><br>
<p>1942 South Face 2nd ascent by Helmut and Fred Beckey.</p><br>
<p>1977 South Face variation FA of route, 3rd ascent of peak by Jack Tackle and Kenneth Currens.</p><br>
<h2>Precipitation and weather</h2><br>
<p>The Waddington Range massif is known for fierce as well as unpredictable weather, located as it is at the brunt of the warm, wet winds that soak the British Columbia Coast, of which it is the highest point. Precipitation levels in the area of the peak are among the highest in the Coast Mountains.</p><br>
<h2>Access</h2><br>
<p>To reach Mount Waddington, one could take a long approach originating from Vancouver, with the bulk of the journey consisting of a long boat ride through the Strait of Georgia and the Knight Inlet, taking up to three days. A shorter water approach from Port McNeill, British Columbia, a northern community of Vancouver Island accessible by scheduled daily air connections and/or road from Victoria, reducing the water journey to less than a day may be undertaken.</p><br>
<p>Alternately trails and rough roads do exist from the Chilcotin side of the range, and may be accessed via BC Highway 20, from Williams Lake, departing from the main route to Bella Coola at Tatla Lake to connect to the Homathko River and up a side creek or glacier from there. This inland route is also the access route for the neighbouring Niut and Pantheon Ranges.</p><br>
<p>Mount Waddington is a popular destination among mountain climbers since it is the highest peak in the Coast Mountains and a challenging climb. It has been compared to Mont Blanc&#39;s structure.</p><br>
<p>Great Zimbabwe is a medieval city in the south-eastern hills of Zimbabwe near Lake Mutirikwe and the town of Masvingo. It was the capital of the Kingdom of Zimbabwe during the country&#39;s Late Iron Age. Construction on the monument began in the 11th century and continued until the 15th century. The most widely-accepted modern archaeological theory is that the edifices were erected by the ancestral Shona. The stone city spans an area of 7.22 km&sup2; which, at its peak, could have housed up to 18,000 people. It is recognised as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO.</p><br>
<p>Great Zimbabwe is believed to have served as a royal palace for the local monarch. As such, it would have been used as the seat of political power. Among the edifice&#39;s most prominent features were its walls, some of which were over five metres high. They were constructed without mortar (dry stone). Eventually, the city was abandoned and fell into ruin.</p><br>
<p>The earliest known written mention of the Great Zimbabwe ruins was in 1531 by Vicente Pegado, captain of the Portuguese garrison of Sofala, who recorded it as Symbaoe. The first confirmed visits by Europeans were in the late 19th century, with investigations of the site starting in 1871. Later, studies of the monument were controversial in the archaeological world, with political pressure being put upon archaeologists by the government of Rhodesia to deny its construction by native African people. Great Zimbabwe has since been adopted as a national monument by the Zimbabwean government, and the modern independent state was named for it. The word great distinguishes the site from the many hundreds of small ruins, now known as "zimbabwes", spread across the Zimbabwe Highveld. There are 200 such sites in southern Africa, such as Bumbusi in Zimbabwe and Manyikeni in Mozambique, with monumental, mortarless walls; Great Zimbabwe is the largest of these.</p><br>
<h2>Name</h2><br>
<p>Zimbabwe is the Shona name of the ruins, first recorded in 1531 by Vicente Pegado, Captain of the Portuguese Garrison of Sofala. Pegado noted that</p><br>
<p>"The natives of the country call these edifices Symbaoe, which according to their language signifies court".</p><br>
<p>The name contains dzimba, the Shona term for "houses". There are two theories for the etymology of the name. The first proposes that the word is derived from Dzimba-dza-mabwe, translated from the Karanga dialect of Shona as "large houses of stone" (dzimba=plural of imba, "house&quot mabwe=plural of bwe, "stone"). A second suggests that Zimbabwe is a contracted form of dzimba-hwe, which means "venerated houses" in the Zezuru dialect of Shona, as usually applied to the houses or graves of chiefs.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<h3>Settlement</h3><br>
<p>The majority of scholars believe that it was built by members of the Gokomere culture, who were ancestors of modern Shona in Zimbabwe. A few believe that the ancestors of the Lemba or Venda were responsible, or cooperated with the Gokomere in the construction.</p><br>
<p>The Great Zimbabwe area was settled by the fourth century AD. Between the fourth and the seventh centuries, communities of the Gokomere or Ziwa cultures farmed the valley, and mined and worked iron, but built no stone structures. These are the earliest Iron Age settlements in the area identified from archaeological diggings.</p><br>
<h3>Construction and growth</h3><br>
<p>Construction of the stone buildings started in the 11th century and continued for over 300 years. The ruins at Great Zimbabwe are some of the oldest and largest structures located in Southern Africa, and are the second oldest after nearby Mapungubwe in South Africa. Its most formidable edifice, commonly referred to as the Great Enclosure, has walls as high as 36 ft extending approximately 820 ft, making it the largest ancient structure south of the Sahara Desert. David Beach believes that the city and its state, the Kingdom of Zimbabwe, flourished from 1200 to 1500, although a somewhat earlier date for its demise is implied by a description transmitted in the early 1500s to João de Barros. Its growth has been linked to the decline of Mapungubwe from around 1300, due to climatic change or the greater availability of gold in the hinterland of Great Zimbabwe. At its peak, estimates are that Great Zimbabwe had as many as 18,000 inhabitants. The ruins that survive are built entirely of stone; they span 1,800 acre.</p><br>
<h3>Features of the ruins</h3><br>
<p>In 1531, Vicente Pegado, Captain of the Portuguese Garrison of Sofala, described Zimbabwe thus:</p><br>
<p>The ruins form three distinct architectural groups. They are known as the Hill Complex, the Valley Complex and the Great Enclosure. The Hill Complex is the oldest, and was occupied from the ninth to thirteenth centuries. The Great Enclosure was occupied from the thirteenth to fifteenth centuries, and the Valley Complex from the fourteenth to sixteenth centuries. Notable features of the Hill Complex include the Eastern Enclosure, in which it is thought the Zimbabwe Birds stood, a high balcony enclosure overlooking the Eastern Enclosure, and a huge boulder in a shape similar to that of the Zimbabwe Bird. The Great Enclosure is composed of an inner wall, encircling a series of structures and a younger outer wall. The Conical Tower, 18 ft in diameter and 30 ft high, was constructed between the two walls. The Valley Complex is divided into the Upper and Lower Valley Ruins, with different periods of occupation.</p><br>
<p>There are different archaeological interpretations of these groupings. It has been suggested that the complexes represent the work of successive kings: some of the new rulers founded a new residence. The alternative "structuralist" interpretation holds that the different complexes had different functions: the Hill Complex as a temple, the Valley complex was for the citizens, and the Great Enclosure was used by the king. Structures that were more elaborate were probably built for the kings, although it has been argued that the dating of finds in the complexes does not support this interpretation.</p><br>
<h3>Notable artefacts</h3><br>
<p>The most important artefacts recovered from the Monument are the eight Zimbabwe Birds. These were carved from a micaceous schist (soapstone) on the tops of monoliths the height of a person. Slots in a platform in the Eastern Enclosure of the Hill Complex appear designed to hold the monoliths with the Zimbabwe birds, but as they were not found in situ it cannot be determined which monolith and bird were where. Other artefacts include soapstone figurines (one of which is in the British Museum), pottery, iron gongs, elaborately worked ivory, iron and copper wire, iron hoes, bronze spearheads, copper ingots and crucibles, and gold beads, bracelets, pendants and sheaths.</p><br>
<h3>Trade</h3><br>
<p>Archaeological evidence suggests that Great Zimbabwe became a centre for trading, with artefacts suggesting that the city formed part of a trade network linked to Kilwa and extending as far as China. Copper coins found at Kilwa Kisiwani appear to be of the same pure ore found on the Swahili coast. This international trade was mainly in gold and ivory; some estimates indicate that more than 20 million ounces of gold were extracted from the ground. That international commerce was in addition to the local agricultural trade, in which cattle were especially important. The large cattle herd that supplied the city moved seasonally and was managed by the court. Chinese pottery shards, coins from Arabia, glass beads and other non-local items have been excavated at Zimbabwe. Despite these strong international trade links, there is no evidence to suggest exchange of architectural concepts between Great Zimbabwe and centres such as Kilwa.</p><br>
<h3>Decline</h3><br>
<p>Causes for the decline and ultimate abandonment of the site around 1450 have been suggested as due to a decline in trade compared to sites further north, the exhaustion of the gold mines, political instability and famine and water shortages induced by climatic change. The Mutapa state arose in the fifteenth century from the northward expansion of the Great Zimbabwe tradition, having been founded by Nyatsimba Mutota from Great Zimbabwe after he was sent to find new sources of salt in the north; (this supports the belief that Great Zimbabwe&#39;s decline was due to a shortage of resources). Great Zimbabwe also predates the Khami and Nyanga cultures.</p><br>
<h2>History of research and origins of the ruins</h2><br>
<h3>From Portuguese traders to Karl Mauch</h3><br>
<p>The first European visit may have been made by the Portuguese traveler António Fernandes in 1513-1515, who crossed twice and reported in detail the region of present-day Zimbabwe (including the Shona kingdoms) and also fortified centers in stone without mortar. However, passing en route a few kilometres north and about 35 mi south of the site, he did not make a reference to Great Zimbabwe. Portuguese traders heard about the remains of the ancient city in the early 16th century, and records survive of interviews and notes made by some of them, linking Great Zimbabwe to gold production and long-distance trade. Two of those accounts mention an inscription above the entrance to Great Zimbabwe, written in characters not known to the Arab merchants who had seen it.</p><br>
<p>In 1506, the explorer Diogo de Alcáçova described the edifices in a letter to the then King of Portugal, writing that they were part of the larger kingdom of Ucalanga (presumably Karanga, a dialect of the Shona people spoken mainly in Masvingo and Midlands provinces of Zimbabwe). João de Barros left another such description of Great Zimbabwe in 1538, as recounted to him by Moorish traders who had visited the area and possessed knowledge of the hinterland. He indicates that the edifices were locally known as Symbaoe, which meant "royal court" in the vernacular. As to the actual identity of the builders of Great Zimbabwe, de Barros writes:</p><br>
<p>Additionally, with regard to the purpose of the Great Zimbabwe ruins, de Barros asserted that: "in the opinion of the Moors who saw it it is very ancient and was built to keep possessions of the mines, which are very old, and no gold has been extracted from them for years, because of the wars... it would seem that some prince who has possession of these mines ordered it to be built as a sign thereof, which he afterwards lost in the course of time and through their being so remote from his kingdom...".</p><br>
<p>De Barros further remarked that Symbaoe "is guarded by a nobleman, who has charge of it, after the manner of a chief alcaide, and they call this officer Symbacayo... and there are always some of Benomotapa&#39;s wives therein of whom Symbacayo takes care." Thus, Great Zimbabwe appears to have still been inhabited as recently as the early 16th century.</p><br>
<h3>Karl Mauch and the Queen of Sheba</h3><br>
<p>The ruins were rediscovered during a hunting trip in 1867 by Adam Render, a German-American hunter, prospector and trader in southern Africa, who in 1871 showed the ruins to Karl Mauch, a German explorer and geographer of Africa. Karl Mauch recorded the ruins 3 September 1871, and immediately speculated about a possible Biblical association with King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba, an explanation which had been suggested by earlier writers such as the Portuguese João dos Santos. Mauch went so far as to favour a legend that the structures were built to replicate the palace of the Queen of Sheba in Jerusalem, and claimed a wooden lintel at the site must be Lebanese cedar, brought by Phoenicians. The Sheba legend, as promoted by Mauch, became so pervasive in the white settler community as to cause the later scholar J. Theodore Bent to say</p><br>
<h3>Carl Peters and Theodore Bent</h3><br>
<p>Carl Peters collected a ceramic ushabti in 1902. Flinders Petrie examined it and identified a cartouche on its chest as belonging to the 18th Dynasty Egyptian Pharaoh Thutmose III and suggested that it was a statuette of the king and cited it as proof of commercial ties between rulers in the area and the ancient Egyptians during the New Kingdom (c. 1550 BC–1077 BC), if not a relic of an old Egyptian station near the local gold mines. Johann Heinrich Schäfer later appraised the statuette, and argued that it belonged to a well-known group of forgeries. After having received the ushabti, Felix von Luschan suggested that it was of more recent origin than the New Kingdom. He asserted that the figurine instead appeared to date to the subsequent Ptolemaic era (c. 323 BC–30 BC), when Alexandria-based Greek merchants would export Egyptian antiquities and pseudo-antiquities to southern Africa.</p><br>
<p>J. Theodore Bent undertook a season at Zimbabwe with Cecil Rhodes&#39;s patronage and funding from the Royal Geographical Society and the British Association for the Advancement of Science. This, and other excavations undertaken for Rhodes, resulted in a book publication that introduced the ruins to English readers. Bent had no formal archaeological training, but had travelled very widely in Arabia, Greece and Asia Minor. He was aided by the expert cartographer and surveyor E. W. M. Swan, who also visited and surveyed a host of related stone ruins nearby. Bent stated in the first edition of his book The Ruined Cities of Mashonaland (1892) that the ruins revealed either the Phoenicians or the Arabs as builders, and he favoured the possibility of great antiquity for the fortress. By the third edition of his book (1902) he was more specific, with his primary theory being "a Semitic race and of Arabian origin" of "strongly commercial" traders living within a client African city.</p><br>
<p>Other theories on the origin of the ruins, among both white settlers and academics, took a common view that the original buildings were probably not made by local Bantu peoples. Bent indulged these theories alongside his Arab theory, to the point where his more tenuous theories had become somewhat discredited by the 1910s.</p><br>
<h3>The Lemba</h3><br>
<p>The construction of Great Zimbabwe is also claimed by the Lemba. This ethnic group of Zimbabwe and South Africa has a tradition of ancient Jewish or South Arabian descent through their male line, which is supported by recent DNA studies, and female ancestry derived from the Karanga subgroup of the Shona.</p><br>
<p>The Lemba claim was also reported by a William Bolts (in 1777, to the Austrian Habsburg authorities), and by an A.A. Anderson (writing about his travels north of the Limpopo River in the 19th century). Both explorers were told that the stone edifices and the gold mines were constructed by a people known as the BaLemba. Robert Gayre strongly supported the Lemba claim to Great Zimbabwe, proposing that the Shona artefacts found in the ruins were placed there only after the Bantu conquered the area and drove out or absorbed the previous inhabitants. However, Gayre&#39;s thesis is not supported by more recent scholars such as Garlake or Pikirayi.</p><br>
<p>Tudor Parfitt described Gayre&#39;s work as intended to "show that black people had never been capable of building in stone or of governing themselves", although he adds: "The fact that Gayre... got most of his facts wrong, does not in itself vitiate the claims of the Lemba to have been involved in the Great Zimbabwe civilisation."</p><br>
<h3>David Randall-MacIver and medieval origin</h3><br>
<p>The first scientific archaeological excavations at the site were undertaken by David Randall-MacIver for the British Association in 1905–1906. In Medieval Rhodesia, he wrote of the existence in the site of objects that were of Bantu origin. More importantly he suggested a wholly medieval date for the walled fortifications and temple. This claim was not immediately accepted, partly due to the relatively short and undermanned period of excavation he was able to undertake.</p><br>
<h3>Gertrude Caton-Thompson</h3><br>
<p>In mid 1929 Gertrude Caton-Thompson concluded, after a twelve-day visit of a three-person team and the digging of several trenches, that the site was indeed created by Bantu. She had first sunk three test pits into what had been refuse heaps on the upper terraces of the hill complex, producing a mix of unremarkable pottery and ironwork. She then moved to the Conical Tower, and tried to dig under the tower, arguing that the ground there would be undisturbed, but nothing was revealed. Some further test trenches were then put down outside the lower Great Enclosure and in the Valley Ruins, which unearthed domestic ironwork, glass beads, and a gold bracelet. Caton-Thompson immediately announced her Bantu origin theory to a meeting of the British Association in Johannesburg. Caton-Thompson&#39;s claim was not immediately favoured, although it had strong support among some scientific archaeologists due to her modern methods. Her most important contribution was in helping to confirm the theory of a medieval origin for the masonry work of circa the 14th-15th century. By 1931, she had modified her Bantu theory somewhat, allowing for a possible Arabian influence for the towers through the imitation of buildings or art seen at the coastal Arabian trading cities.</p><br>
<h3>Post-1945 research</h3><br>
<p>Since the 1950s, there has been consensus among archaeologists as to the African origins of Great Zimbabwe. artefacts and radiocarbon dating indicate settlement in at least the fifth century, with continuous settlement of Great Zimbabwe between the twelfth and fifteenth centuries and the bulk of the finds from the fifteenth century. In the 1970s, a beam that produced some of the anomalous dates in 1952 was reanalysed and gave a fourteenth-century date. Dated finds such as Chinese, Persian and Syrian artefacts also support the twelfth and fifteenth century dates.</p><br>
<h3>Gokomere</h3><br>
<p>Archaeologists generally agree that the builders probably spoke one of the Shona languages, based upon evidence of pottery, oral traditions The Gokomere culture likely gave rise to both the modern Mashona people, an ethnic cluster comprising distinct sub-ethnic groups such as the local Karanga clan and the Rozwi culture, which originated as several Shona states. Gokomere-descended groups such as the Shona probably contributed the African component of the ancestry of the Lemba. Gokomere peoples were probably also related to certain nearby early Bantu groups like the Mapungubwe civilisation of neighbouring North eastern South Africa, which is believed to have been an early Venda-speaking culture, and to the nearby Sotho.</p><br>
<h3>Recent research</h3><br>
<p>More recent archaeological work has been carried out by Peter Garlake, who has produced the comprehensive descriptions of the site, David Beach and Thomas Huffman, who have worked on the chronology and development of Great Zimbabwe and Gilbert Pwiti, who has published extensively on trade links. Today, the most recent consensus appears to attribute the construction of Great Zimbabwe to the Shona people. Some evidence also suggests an early influence from the probably Venda speaking peoples of Mapungubwe.</p><br>
<h3>Damage to the ruins</h3><br>
<p>Damage to the ruins has taken place throughout the last century. The removal of gold and artefacts in amateurist diggings by early colonial antiquarians caused widespread damage, More extensive damage was caused by the mining of some of the ruins for gold. Reconstruction attempts since 1980 caused further damage, leading to alienation of the local communities from the site.</p><br>
<h2>Political implications</h2><br>
<p>Martin Hall writes that the history of Iron Age research south of the Zambezi shows the prevalent influence of colonial ideologies, both in the earliest speculations about the nature of the African past and in the adaptations that have been made to contemporary archaeological methodologies. Preben Kaarsholm writes that both colonial and black nationalist groups invoked Great Zimbabwes past to support their vision of the countrys present, through the media of popular history and of fiction. Examples of such popular history include Alexander Wilmots Monomotapa (Rhodesia) and Ken Mufukas Dzimbahwe: Life and Politics in the Golden Age; examples from fiction include Wilbur Smiths The Sunbird and Stanlake Samkanges Year of the Uprising.</p><br>
<p>When white colonialists like Cecil Rhodes first saw the ruins, they saw them as a sign of the great riches that the area would yield to its new masters. Pikirayi and Kaarsholm suggest that this presentation of Great Zimbabwe was partly intended to encourage settlement and investment in the area. The official line in Rhodesia during the 1960s and 1970s was that the structures were built by non-blacks. Archaeologists who disputed the official statement were censored by the government. According to Paul Sinclair, interviewed for None But Ourselves:</p><br>
<p>This suppression of archaeology culminated in the departure from the country of prominent archaeologists of Great Zimbabwe, including Peter Garlake, Senior Inspector of Monuments for Rhodesia, and Roger Summers of the National Museum.</p><br>
<p>To black nationalist groups, Great Zimbabwe became an important symbol of achievement by Africans: reclaiming its history was a major aim for those seeking majority rule. In 1980 the new internationally recognised independent country was renamed for the site, and its famous soapstone bird carvings were retained from the Rhodesian flag and Coat of Arms as a national symbol and depicted in the new Zimbabwean flag. After the creation of the modern state of Zimbabwe in 1980, Great Zimbabwe has been employed to mirror and legitimise shifting policies of the ruling regime. At first it was argued that it represented a form of pre-colonial "African socialism" and later the focus shifted to stressing the natural evolution of an accumulation of wealth and power within a ruling elite. An example of the former is Ken Mufuka&#39;s booklet, although the work has been heavily criticised.</p><br>
<p>Some of the carvings had been taken from Great Zimbabwe around 1890 and sold to Cecil Rhodes, who was intrigued and had copies made which he gave to friends. Most of the carvings have now been returned to Zimbabwe, but one remains at Rhodes&#39; old home, Groote Schuur, in Cape Town.</p><br>
<h2>The Great Zimbabwe University</h2><br>
<p>In the early 21st century, the government of Zimbabwe endorsed the creation of a university in the vicinity of the ruins. This university is an arts and culture based university which draws from the rich history of the monuments. It was created to preserve the rich history of this country which was facing a dark future due to globalisation. The university main site is near the monuments with other campuses in the City centre and Mashava. the campuses include Herbet Chitepo law school, Robert Mugabe, school of Education, Gary Magadzire School of Agriculture and Natural Science, Simon Muzenda School of Arts and Munhumutapa school of Commerce.</p><br>
<h2>Image gallery</h2><br>
<p>Tiwanaku  is a Pre-Columbian archaeological site in western Bolivia.</p><br>
<p>The site was first recorded in written history by Spanish conquistador Pedro Cieza de León. He came upon the remains of Tiwanaku in 1549 while searching for the Inca capital in Qullasuyu.</p><br>
<p>The name by which Tiwanaku was known to its inhabitants may have been lost as they had no written language. The ancient inhabitants of Tiwanaku are believed to have spoken the Puquina language.</p><br>
<h2>Structures</h2><br>
<p>The area around Tiwanaku may have been inhabited as early as 1500 BC as a small agricultural village. During the time period between 300 BC and AD 300, Tiwanaku is thought to have been a moral and cosmological center for the Tiwanaku empire, and one to which many people made pilgrimages. Researchers believe it achieved this standing prior to Tiwanaku expanding its powerful empire.</p><br>
<p>In 1945, Arthur Posnansky estimated that Tiwanaku dated to 15,000 BC, based on his archaeoastronomical techniques. In the 21st century, experts concluded Posnansky&#39;s dates were invalid and a "sorry example of misused archaeoastronomical evidence."</p><br>
<p>The structures that have been excavated by researchers at Tiwanaku include the Akapana, Akapana East, and Pumapunku stepped platforms, the Kalasasaya, the Kheri Kala, and Putuni enclosures, and the Semi-Subterranean Temple. These may be visited by the public.</p><br>
<p>The Akapana is an approximately cross-shaped pyramidal structure that is 257 m wide, 197 m broad at its maximum, and 16.5 m tall. At its center appears to have been a sunken court. This was nearly destroyed by a deep looters excavation that extends from the center of this structure to its eastern side. Material from the looters excavation was dumped off the eastern side of the Akapana. A staircase with sculptures is present on its western side. Possible residential complexes might have occupied both the northeast and southeast corners of this structure.</p><br>
<p>Originally, the Akapana was thought to have been developed from a modified hill. Twenty-first century studies have shown that it is an entirely manmade earthen mound, faced with a mixture of large and small stone blocks. The dirt comprising Akapana appears to have been excavated from the "moat" that surrounds the site. The largest stone block within the Akapana, made of andesite, is estimated to weigh 65.70 metric tons. The structure was possibly for the shaman-puma relationship or transformation through shape shifting. Tenon puma and human heads stud the upper terraces.</p><br>
<p>The Akapana East was built on the eastern side of early Tiwanaku. Later it was considered a boundary between the ceremonial center and the urban area. It was made of a thick, prepared floor of sand and clay, which supported a group of buildings. Yellow and red clay were used in different areas for what seems like aesthetic purposes. It was swept clean of all domestic refuse, signaling its great importance to the culture.</p><br>
<p>The Pumapunku is a man-made platform built on an east–west axis like the Akapana. It is a rectangular, terraced earthen mound faced with megalithic blocks. It is 167.36 m wide along its north–south axis and 116.7 m broad along its east–west axis, and is 5 m tall. Identical 20-meter-wide projections extend 27.6 meters north and south from the northeast and southeast corners of the Pumapunku. Walled and unwalled courts and an esplanade are associated with this structure.</p><br>
<p>A prominent feature of the Pumapunku is a large stone terrace; it is 6.75 by 38.72 meters in dimension and paved with large stone blocks. It is called the "Plataforma Lítica". The Plataforma Lítica contains the largest stone block found in the Tiwanaku site. According to Ponce Sangines, the block is estimated to weigh 131 metric tons. The second largest stone block found within the Pumapunku is estimated to be 85 metric tons.</p><br>
<p>The Kalasasaya is a large courtyard more than 300 feet long, outlined by a high gateway. It is located to the north of the Akapana and west of the Semi-Subterranean Temple. Within the courtyard is where explorers found the Gateway of the Sun. Since the late 20th century, researchers have theorized that this was not the gateway&#39;s original location.</p><br>
<p>Near the courtyard is the Semi-Subterranean Temple; a square sunken courtyard that is unique for its north–south rather than east–west axis. The walls are covered with tenon heads of many different styles, suggesting that the structure was reused for different purposes over time. The largest stone block in the Kalasasaya is estimated to weigh 26.95 metric tons.</p><br>
<p>Within many of the site&#39;s structures are impressive gateways; the ones of monumental scale are placed on artificial mounds, platforms, or sunken courts. Many gateways show iconography of the Staff God. This iconography also is used on some oversized vessels, indicating an importance to the culture. This iconography is most present on the Gateway of the Sun.</p><br>
<p>The Gateway of the Sun and others located at Pumapunku are not complete. They are missing part of a typical recessed frame known as a chambranle, which typically have sockets for clamps to support later additions. These architectural examples, as well as the recently discovered Akapana Gate, have a unique detail and demonstrate high skill in stone-cutting. This reveals a knowledge of descriptive geometry. The regularity of elements suggest they are part of a system of proportions.</p><br>
<p>Many theories for the skill of Tiwanaku&#39;s architectural construction have been proposed. One is that they used a luk’a, which is a standard measurement of about sixty centimeters. Another argument is for the Pythagorean Ratio. This idea calls for right triangles at a ratio of five to four to three used in the gateways to measure all parts. Lastly Protzen and Nair argue that Tiwanaku had a system set for individual elements dependent on context and composition. This is shown in the construction of similar gateways ranging from diminutive to monumental size, proving that scaling factors did not affect proportion. With each added element, the individual pieces were shifted to fit together.</p><br>
<p>As the population grew, occupational niches developed, and people began to specialize in certain skills. There was an increase in artisans, who worked in pottery, jewelry and textiles. Like the later Inca, the Tiwanaku had few commercial or market institutions. Instead, the culture relied on elite redistribution. That is, the elites of the empire controlled essentially all economic output, but were expected to provide each commoner with all the resources needed to perform his or her function. Selected occupations include agriculturists, herders, pastoralists, etc. Such separation of occupations was accompanied by hierarchical stratification within the empire.</p><br>
<p>The elites of Tiwanaku lived inside four walls that were surrounded by a moat. This moat, some believe, was to create the image of a sacred island. Inside the walls were many images devoted to human origin, which only the elites would see. Commoners may have entered this structure only for ceremonial purposes, since it was home to the holiest of shrines.</p><br>
<h2>Archaeology</h2><br>
<p>As the site has suffered from looting and amateur excavations since shortly after Tiwanaku&#39;s fall, archeologists must attempt to interpret it with the understanding that materials have been jumbled and destroyed. This destruction continued during the Spanish conquest and colonial period, and during 19th century and the early 20th century. Other damage was committed by people quarrying stone for building and railroad construction, and target practice by military personnel.</p><br>
<p>No standing buildings have survived at the modern site. Only public, non-domestic foundations remain, with poorly reconstructed walls. The ashlar blocks used in many of these structures were mass-produced in similar styles so that they could possibly be used for multiple purposes. Throughout the period of the site, certain buildings changed purposes, causing a mix of artifacts found today.</p><br>
<p>Detailed study of Tiwanaku began on a small scale in the mid-nineteenth century. In the 1860s, Ephraim George Squier visited the ruins and later published maps and sketches completed during his visit. German geologist Alphons Stübel spent nine days in Tiwanaku in 1876, creating a map of the site based on careful measurements. He also made sketches and created paper impressions of carvings and other architectural features. A book containing major photographic documentation was published in 1892 by engineer B. von Grumbkow. With commentary by archaeologist Max Uhle, this was the first in-depth scientific account of the ruins.</p><br>
<h3>Contemporary excavation and restoration</h3><br>
<p>In the 1960s, the Bolivian government initiated an effort to restore the site and reconstruct part of it. The walls of the Kalasasaya are almost all reconstructed. The original stones making up the Kalasasaya would have resembled a more "Stonehenge"-like style, spaced evenly apart and standing straight up. The reconstruction was not sufficiently based on research; for instance, a new wall was built around Kalasasaya. The reconstruction does not have as high quality of stonework as was present in Tiwanaku. As noted, the Gateway of the Sun, now in the Kalasasaya, was moved from its original location.</p><br>
<p>Modern, academically sound archaeological excavations were performed from 1978 through the 1990s by University of Chicago anthropologist Alan Kolata and his Bolivian counterpart, Oswaldo Rivera. Among their contributions are the rediscovery of the suka kollus, accurate dating of the civilization&#39;s growth and influence, and evidence for a drought-based collapse of the Tiwanaku civilization.</p><br>
<p>Archaeologists such as Paul Goldstein have argued that the Tiwanaku empire ranged outside of the altiplano area and into the Moquegua Valley in Peru. Excavations at Omo settlements show signs of similar architecture characteristic of Tiwanaku, such as a temple and terraced mound. Evidence of similar types of cranial deformation in burials between the Omo site and the main site of Tiwanaku is also being used for this argument.</p><br>
<p>Today Tiwanaku has been designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, administered by the Bolivian government.</p><br>
<p>Recently, the Department of Archaeology of Bolivia (DINAR, directed by Javier Escalante) has been conducting excavations on the Akapana pyramid. The Proyecto Arqueologico Pumapunku-Akapana (Pumapunku-Akapana Archaeological Project, PAPA) run by the University of Pennsylvania, has been excavating in the area surrounding the pyramid for the past few years, and also conducting Ground Penetrating Radar surveys of the area.</p><br>
<p>In former years, an archaeological field school offered through Harvard&#39;s Summer School Program, conducted in the residential area outside the monumental core, has provoked controversy amongst local archaeologists. The program was directed by Dr. Gary Urton, of Harvard, who was an expert on quipus, and Dr. Alexei Vranich of the University of Pennsylvania. The controversy was over allowing a team of untrained students to work on the site, even under professional supervision. It was so important that only certified professional archaeologists with documented funding were allowed access. The controversy was charged with nationalistic and political undertones. The Harvard field school lasted for three years, beginning in 2004 and ending in 2007. The project was not renewed in subsequent years, nor was permission sought to do so.</p><br>
<p>In 2009 state-sponsored restoration work on the Akapana pyramid was halted due to a complaint from UNESCO. The restoration had consisted of facing the pyramid with adobe, although researchers had not established this as appropriate.</p><br>
<p>Tanis  is a city in the north-eastern Nile Delta of Egypt. It is located on the Tanitic branch of the Nile which has long since silted up.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Tanis was a city in ancient Egypt and served as a parallel religious center to Thebes in the Third Intermediate Period. No archaeological evidence from it pre-dates the reign of Psusennes I (1039-991 BC, 21st Dynasty), but many scholars think it originated in the late New Kingdom. Tanis&#39;s creation was most likely due to the silting up of the Nile branch that ran by Pi-Ramesses, which forced people to seek another area with access to water. Later on, Tanis would become known as Thebes of Lower Egypt.</p><br>
<p>The kings at Tanis saw themselves as the legitimate successors on the throne of Upper and Lower Egypt. They used traditional titles and displayed their royalty in building work, although that was insignificant when compared to activity at the height of the New Kingdom.</p><br>
<p>Tanis was founded in the late Twentieth Dynasty, and became the northern capital of Egypt during the following Twenty-first Dynasty. It was the home city of Smendes, founder of the 21st dynasty. During the Twenty-second Dynasty, Tanis remained as Egypt&#39;s political capital (though there were sometimes rival dynasties located elsewhere in Upper Egypt). It was an important commercial and strategic city until it was threatened with inundation by Lake Manzala in the 6th century AD, when it was finally abandoned. The refugees founded the nearby city of Tennis.</p><br>
<p>The Hebrew story adopted by Christianity of Moses’ being found in the marshes of the Nile River as told in Exodus 2:3-5 is commonly located at Tanis. However, the intent of those stories may be as spiritual as much as historical allegories, as no supporting archeological evidence has been unearthed. The demise of the city may well have been caused by the relocation of Nile tributaries.</p><br>
<h2>Ruins</h2><br>
<p>Tanis was the site of numerous archaeological digs beginning in the 19th century, involving Flinders Petrie and Auguste Mariette.</p><br>
<p>In 1866, Karl Richard Lepsius discovered at Tanis the Decree of Canopus—an inscription closely related to the Rosetta Stone, which was likewise written in Egyptian (hieroglyphic and demotic) and Greek. This discovery contributed significantly to the decipherment of hieroglyphics.</p><br>
<p>There are ruins of a number of temples, including the chief temple dedicated to Amun, and a very important royal necropolis of the Third Intermediate Period (which contains the only known intact royal Pharaonic burials — the tomb of Tutankhamun having been entered in antiquity). Many of the stones used to build the various temples at Tanis came from the old Ramesside town of Qantir (ancient Pi-Ramesses/Per-Ramesses), which caused many former generations of Egyptologists to believe that Tanis was, in fact, Per-Ramesses. However, the burials of three Dynasty 21 and Dynasty 22 pharaohs — Psusennes I, Amenemope and Shoshenq II — survived the depredations of tomb robbers throughout antiquity. They were discovered intact in 1939 and 1940 by Pierre Montet and proved to contain a large catalogue of gold, jewelry, lapis lazuli and other precious stones including the funerary masks of these kings.</p><br>
<p>The chief deities of Tanis were Amun; his consort, Mut; and their child Khonsu, forming the Tanite triad. This triad was, however, identical to that of Thebes, leading many scholars to speak of Tanis as the "northern Thebes".</p><br>
<p>In 2009, the Egyptian Culture Ministry reported archaeologists had discovered the site of a sacred lake in a temple to the goddess Mut at the San al-Hagar archaeological site in ancient Tanis. The lake, built out of limestone blocks, had been 15 meters long and 12 meters wide. It was discovered 12 meters below ground in good condition. This was the second sacred lake found at Tanis. The first lake at the site had been identified in 1928.</p><br>
<p>In 2011, analysis of high-resolution satellite imagery, led by archaeologist Sarah Parcak of the University of Alabama at Birmingham, found numerous related mud-brick walls, streets, and large residences, amounting to an entire city plan, in an area that appears blank under normal images. A French archeological team selected a site from the imagery and confirmed mud-brick structures approximately 30 cm below the surface. However, the assertion that the technology showed 17 pyramids was denounced as "completely wrong" by the Minister of State for Antiquities at the time, Zahi Hawass".</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>In the 1981 film Raiders of the Lost Ark, Tanis was said to be the resting place of the Ark of the Covenant, which was hidden in a secret chamber called the Well of Souls. Tanis was fictitiously depicted as having been destroyed in a sand storm and buried until 1936, when it was discovered by a German expedition outside Cairo. In fact, Tanis was the site of numerous archaeological digs beginning in the 19th century.</p><br>
<p>In the novel The World&#39;s Desire by H. Rider Haggard, Tanis is the principal location of the action.</p><br>
<p>Scafell Pike or is the highest mountain in England, at an elevation of 978 m above sea level. It is located in the Lake District National Park, in Cumbria, and is part of the Southern Fells.</p><br>
<h2>Topography</h2><br>
<p>Scafell Pike is one of a horseshoe of high fells, open to the south, surrounding the head of Eskdale, Cumbria. It stands on the western side of the cirque, with Scafell to the south and Great End to the north. This ridge forms the watershed between Eskdale and Wasdale, which lies to the west.</p><br>
<p>The narrowest definition of Scafell Pike begins at the ridge of Mickledore in the south, takes in the wide, stony summit area and ends at the next depression, Broad Crag Col, c. 920 m (3,030 ft). A more inclusive view also takes in two further tops: Broad Crag, 934 m (3,064 ft) and Ill Crag, 935 m (3,068 ft), the two being separated by Ill Crag Col. This is the position taken by most guidebooks. North of Ill Crag is the more definite depression of Calf Cove at 850 m (2,800 ft), before the ridge climbs again to Great End.</p><br>
<p>Scafell Pike also has outliers on either side of the ridge. Lingmell, to the north west, is invariably regarded as a separate fell, while Pen, 760 m (2,500 ft), a shapely summit above the Esk, is normally taken as a satellite of the Pike. Middleboot Knotts is a further top lying on the Wasdale slopes of Broad Crag, which is listed as a Nuttall.</p><br>
<p>The rough summit plateau is fringed by crags on all sides with Pikes Crag and Dropping Crag above Wasdale and Rough Crag to the east. Below Rough Crag and Pen is a further tier, named Dow Crag and Central Pillar on Ordnance Survey maps, although known as Esk Buttress among climbers. Esk Buttress and Pikes Crag are well known rock climbing venues.</p><br>
<p>Broad Crag Col is the source of Little Narrowcove Beck in the east and of Piers Gill in the west. The latter works its way around Lingmell to Wast Water through a spectacular ravine, one of the most impressive in the Lake District. It is treacherous in winter, as when it freezes over it creates an icy patch, with lethal exposure should you slip. Broad Crag is a small top with its principal face on the west and the smaller Green Crag looking down on Little Narrowcove. From Broad Crag, the ridge turns briefly east across Ill Crag Col and onto the shapely pyramidal summit of Ill Crag. Here, the main crags are on the Eskdale side, Ill Crag having little footing(clarify) in Wasdale.</p><br>
<p>Scafell Pike has a claim to the highest standing water in England, although Foxes Tarn on Scafell is of similar height. The water body in question is Broad Crag Tarn, which (confusingly) is on Scafell Pike proper, rather than Broad Crag. It lies at about 820 m (2,700 ft), a quarter of a mile south of the summit.</p><br>
<h2>Summit</h2><br>
<p>The summit was donated to the National Trust in 1919 by Lord Leconfield "in perpetual memory of the men of the Lake District who fell for God and King, for freedom peace and right in the Great War 1914-1918...". There is a better-known war memorial on Great Gable, commemorating the members of the Fell & Rock Climbing Club.</p><br>
<p>Scafell Pike is one of three British peaks climbed as part of the National Three Peaks Challenge, and is the highest ground for over 90 miles.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>Scafell Pike consists of igneous rock dating from the Ordovician; it is geologically part of the Borrowdale Volcanics. The summit plateau of Scafell Pike, and that of other neighbouring peaks, is covered with shattered rock debris which provides the highest-altitude example of a summit boulder field in England.</p><br>
<h2>Tourism</h2><br>
<p>Scafell Pike is a popular destination for walkers. There is open access to Scafell and the surrounding fells, with many walking and rock climbing routes. Paths connect the summit with Lingmell Col to the northwest, Mickledore to the southwest, and Esk Hause to the northeast, and these in turn connect with numerous other paths, giving access to walkers from many directions including Wasdale Head to the west, Seathwaite to the north, Langdale to the east, and Eskdale to the southwest. The shortest route is from Wasdale Head, about 80 metres above sea level, where there is a climber&#39;s hotel, the Wasdale Head Inn, made popular in the Victorian period by Owen Glynne Jones and others. According to the National Trust, as of 2014 there were over 100,000 people per year climbing Scafell Pike from Wasdale Head, many as part of the National Three Peaks Challenge.</p><br>
<h2>Naming history</h2><br>
<p>The name Scafell is believed by some to derive from the Old Norse skalli fjall, meaning either the fell with the shieling or the fell with the bald summit, and is first recorded in 1578 in the corrupted form Skallfield. An alternative derivation is from the Old Norse "skagi", meaning a cape, headland, promontory or peninsula - so giving an etymology that aligns with Skaw in Shetland. It originally referred to Scafell, which neighbours Scafell Pike. What are now known as Scafell Pike, Ill Crag, and Broad Crag were collectively called either the Pikes (peaks) or the Pikes of Scawfell (see below regarding spelling); from many angles Scafell seems to be the highest peak, and the others were thus considered subsidiary to it. The name Scawfell Pikes was adopted "by common consent" according to Jonathan Otley, shortly before the publication of the 4th edition of his guidebook in 1830. Up to this point, England&#39;s highest mountain (its status as such was not known until the early 1800s) did not have a name of its own; it was labelled Sca-Fell Higher Top by the Ordnance Survey in their initial work in Cumbria in the first decade of the 19th century. The newly developed name reported by Otley first appeared on a published Ordnance Survey map in 1865.</p><br>
<p>Formerly the name was spelled Scawfell, which better reflects local pronunciation. This spelling has declined due to the Ordnance Survey&#39;s use of Scafell on their 1865 map and thereafter.</p><br>
<h2>Survey point</h2><br>
<p>Scafell Pike was used in 1826 as a station in the Principal Triangulation of Britain by the Ordnance Survey when they fixed the relative positions of Britain and Ireland. Angles between Slieve Donard in Northern Ireland and Scafell Pike were taken from Snowdon in North Wales as were angles between Snowdon and Scafell Pike from Slieve Donard. Given the need for clear weather to achieve these very long-range observations (111 miles to Slieve Donard), the Ordnance surveyors spent much of the summer camped on the respective mountain tops. Strangely, Scafell Pike was not used as a station in the earlier part of the Principal Triangulation of Britain, even though Sca-Fell formed one corner of a Principal Triangle. The Ordnance Survey&#39;s high precision theodolite was not taken to the summit until 1841.</p><br>
<h2>Views from the summit</h2><br>
<h3>Summer</h3><br>
<h3>Winter</h3><br>
<h2>Visible "Marilyns"</h2><br>
<p>As the highest ground in England, Scafell Pike has a very extensive view, ranging from the Mourne Mountains to Snowdonia. On a clear day, the following Marilyns can be seen from the summit.</p><br>
<h3>North</h3><br>
<p>Dun Rig, 77 mi, 2 degrees</p><br>
<p>Binsey, 18 mi, 2 degrees</p><br>
<p>Turner Cleuch Law, 71 mi, 4 degrees</p><br>
<p>Dale Head, 5 mi, 5 degrees</p><br>
<p>Wisp Hill, 58 mi, 11 degrees</p><br>
<p>Skiddaw, 14 mi, 12 degrees</p><br>
<p>Roan Fell, 55 mi, 15 degrees</p><br>
<p>Knott, 17 mi, 17 degrees</p><br>
<p>Peel Fell, 63 mi, 24 degrees</p><br>
<p>Blencathra, 14 mi, 28 degrees</p><br>
<p>The Cheviot, 83 mi, 31 degrees</p><br>
<p>Cold Fell, 39 mi, 39 degrees</p><br>
<h3>East</h3><br>
<p>Howgill Fells, 29 mi, 103 degrees</p><br>
<p>Bow Fell, 2 mi, 105 degrees</p><br>
<p>Yorkshire Three Peaks, 36, 44 and 38 mi, 119 degrees</p><br>
<p>Boulsworth Hill, 63 mi, 135 degrees</p><br>
<p>Pendle Hill, 55 mi, 138 degrees</p><br>
<p>Ward&#39;s Stone, 38 mi, 142 degrees</p><br>
<p>The Old Man of Coniston, 7 mi, 149 degrees</p><br>
<p>Winter Hill, 64 mi, 154 degrees</p><br>
<h3>South</h3><br>
<p>Snaefell, 52 mi, 257 degrees</p><br>
<p>Slieve Donard, 111 mi, 262 degrees</p><br>
<p>Slieve Croob, 112 mi, 268 degrees</p><br>
<h3>West</h3><br>
<p>Beneraird, 80 mi, 303 degrees</p><br>
<p>Merrick, 69 mi, 315 degrees</p><br>
<p>Pillar, 4 mi, 318 degrees</p><br>
<p>Cairnsmore of Carsphairn, 68 mi, 326 degrees</p><br>
<p>High Stile, 6 mi, 328 degrees</p><br>
<p>Criffel, 37 mi, 334 degrees</p><br>
<p>Grasmoor, 8 mi, 342 degrees</p><br>
<p>Great Gable, 2 mi, 351 degrees</p><br>
<p>The Guadalete River is located almost entirely in the Spanish province of Cádiz, rising in the Sierra de Grazalema Natural Park at an elevation of about 1,000 m, and running for 172 km into the Bay of Cádiz at El Puerto de Santa Maria, south of the city of Cádiz. The river&#39;s name comes from the Arabic phrase meaning "River of Forgetfulness".</p><br>
<h2>Course</h2><br>
<p>From its source in the Sierra de Grazalema, the Guadalete passes:</p><br>
<p>*Grazalema</p><br>
<p>*The Reservoir (Embalse) of Zahara</p><br>
<p>*Puerto Solano</p><br>
<p>*Briefly enters Seville province and reenters Cádiz province</p><br>
<p>*Villamartín</p><br>
<p>*The Reservoir (Embalse) of Bornos</p><br>
<p>*The Reservoir (Embalse) of Arcos</p><br>
<p>*Arcos de la Frontera</p><br>
<p>*La Barca de la Florida</p><br>
<p>*Lomopardo and El Portal (near Jerez de la Frontera)</p><br>
<p>It then flows into the Bay of Cádiz, in the city of El Puerto de Santa Maria.</p><br>
<p>There are several dams with reservoirs along its course, including the Embalse de Zahara and the Embalse de Bornos. The "Sierra Greenway", a 36 km bicycle path reclaimed from an abandoned railroad line, also passes along the river.</p><br>
<p>The largest tributaries of the Guadalete are the Guadalporcún, and the Majaceite, which joins it at Junta de los Ríos downstream from Arcos de la Frontera.</p><br>
<h2>Historic importance</h2><br>
<p>The river was once the frontier between Christian and Moorish Iberia, receiving the sobriquet Río de los Muertos (river of the dead).</p><br>
<p>The river may have been the location of the Battle of Guadalete in 711, at which the Visigothic army was defeated by an invading Muslim army, leading to the conquest of Iberia by the Umayyad Caliphate.</p><br>
<p>Cumae  or Κύμαι or Κύμα; Cuma) was an ancient city of Magna Graecia on the coast of the Tyrrhenian Sea. Founded by settlers from Euboea in the 8th century BC, Cumae was the first Greek colony on the mainland of Italy and the seat of the Cumaean Sibyl. The ruins of the city lie near the modern village of Cuma, a frazione of the comune Bacoli in the Province of Naples, Campania, Italy.</p><br>
<h2>Early history</h2><br>
<p>The settlement, in a location that was already occupied, is believed to have been founded in the 8th century BC by Euboean Greeks, originally from the cities of Eretria and Chalcis in Euboea, which was accounted its mother-city by agreement among the first settlers. They were already established at Pithecusae (modern Ischia); they were led by the paired oecists (founders) Megasthenes of Chalcis and Hippocles of Cyme.</p><br>
<p>The Greeks were planted upon the earlier dwellings of indigenous, Iron Age peoples whom they supplanted; a memory of them was preserved as cave-dwellers named Cimmerians, among whom there was already an oracular tradition. Its name refers to the peninsula of Cyme in Euboea. The colony was also the entry point in the Italian peninsula for the Euboean alphabet, the local variant of the Greek alphabet used by its colonists, a variant of which was adapted and modified by the Etruscans and then by the Romans and became the Latin alphabet still used worldwide today.</p><br>
<p>The colony thrived. By the 8th century it was strong enough to send Perieres and a group with him, who were among the founders of Zancle in Sicily, and another band had returned to found Triteia in Achaea, Pausanias was told. It spread its influence throughout the area over the 7th and 6th centuries BC, gaining sway over Puteoli and Misenum and, thereafter, founding Neapolis in 470 BC. All these facts were recalled long afterwards; Cumae&#39;s first brief contemporary mention in written history is in Thucydides.</p><br>
<p>The growing power of the Cumaean Greeks led many indigenous tribes of the region to organize against them, notably the Dauni and Aurunci with the leadership of the Capuan Etruscans. This coalition was defeated by the Cumaeans in 524 BC under the direction of Aristodemus, called Malacus, a successful man of the people who overthrew the aristocratic faction, became a tyrant himself, and was assassinated.</p><br>
<p>Contact between the Romans and the Cumaeans is recorded during the reign of Aristodemus. Livy states that immediately prior to the war between Rome and Clusium, the Roman senate sent agents to Cumae to purchase grain in anticipation of a siege of Rome. Also Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, the last legendary King of Rome, lived his life in exile with Aristodemus at Cumae after the Battle of Lake Regillus and died there in 495 BC. Livy records that Aristodemus became the heir of Tarquinius, and in 492 when Roman envoys travelled to Cumae to purchase grain, Aristodemus seized the envoys vessels on account of the property of Tarquinius which had been seized at the time of Tarquinius exile.</p><br>
<p>Also during the reign of Aristodemus, the Cumaean army assisted the Latin city of Aricia to defeat the Etruscan forces of Clusium.</p><br>
<p>The combined fleets of Cumae and Syracuse (on Sicily) defeated the Etruscans at the Battle of Cumae in 474 BC.</p><br>
<h2>Oscan and Roman Cumae</h2><br>
<p>The Greek period at Cumae came to an end in 421 BC, when the Oscans broke down the walls and took the city, ravaging the countryside. Some survivors fled to Neapolis. Cumae came under Roman rule with Capua and in 338 was granted partial citizenship, a civitas sine suffragio. In the Second Punic War, in spite of temptations to revolt from Roman authority, Cumae withstood Hannibal&#39;s siege, under the leadership of Tib. Sempronius Gracchus.</p><br>
<p>The early presence of Christianity in Cumae is shown by the 2nd-century work The Shepherd of Hermas, in which the author tells of a vision of a woman, identified with the church, who entrusts him with a text to read to the presbyters of the community in Cuma. At the end of the 4th century, the temple of Zeus at Cumae was transformed into a Christian basilica.</p><br>
<p>The first historically documented bishop of Cumae was Adeodatus, a member of a synod convoked by Pope Hilarius in Rome in 465. Another was Misenus, who was one of the two legates that Pope Felix III sent to Constantinople and who were imprisoned and forced to receive Communion with Patriarch Acacius of Constantinople in a celebration of the Divine Liturgy in which Peter Mongus and other Miaphysites were named in the diptychs, an event that led to the Acacian Schism. Misenus was excommunicated on his return but was later rehabilitated and took part as bishop of Cumae in two synods of Pope Symmachus. Pope Gregory the Great entrusted the administration of the diocese of Cumae to the bishop of Misenum. Later, both Misenum and Cumae ceased to be residential sees and the territory of Cumae became part of the diocese of Aversa after the destruction of Cumae in 1207. Accordingly, Cumae is today listed by the Catholic Church as a titular see.</p><br>
<p>Under Roman rule, "quiet Cumae" slumbered until the disasters of the Gothic Wars (535–554), when it was repeatedly attacked, as the only fortified city in Campania aside from Neapolis: Belisarius took it in 536, Totila held it, and when Narses gained possession of Cumae, he found he had won the whole treasury of the Goths. In 1207, forces from Naples, acting for the boy-King of Sicily, destroyed the city and its walls, as the stronghold of a nest of bandits.</p><br>
<p>The seaward side of the large rise on which Cumae was built was used as a bunker and gun emplacement by the Germans during World War II.</p><br>
<h2>Mythology</h2><br>
<p>Cumae is perhaps most famous as the seat of the Cumaean Sibyl. Her sanctuary is now open to the public.</p><br>
<p>In Roman mythology, there is an entrance to the underworld located at Avernus, a crater lake near Cumae, and was the route Aeneas used to descend to the Underworld.</p><br>
<h2>Diocese of Cuma(e)</h2><br>
<p>A bishopric was established around 450 AD. In 700 it gained territory from the suppressed Diocese of Miseno.</p><br>
<p>In 1207 it was suppressed itself, its territory being divided and merged into the Roman Catholic Diocese of Aversa and Roman Catholic Diocese of Pozzuoli.</p><br>
<h3>Resident bishops</h3><br>
<p>Saint Massenzio (300? – ?)</p><br>
<p>Rainaldo (1073? – 1078?)</p><br>
<p>Giovanni (1134? – 1141?)</p><br>
<p>Gregorio (1187? – ?)</p><br>
<p>Leone (1207? – ?)</p><br>
<h3>Titular see</h3><br>
<p>In 1970, the diocese was nominally restored as a Latin titular see.</p><br>
<p>So far, it has had the following incumbent, of the lowest (episcopal) class with a single archiepscopal exception:</p><br>
<p>Titular Bishop Louis-Marie-Joseph de Courrèges d’Ustou (1970.09.02 – 1970.12.10)</p><br>
<p>Titular Archbishop Edoardo Pecoraio (1971.12.28 – 1986.08.09)</p><br>
<p>Titular Bishop Julio María Elías Montoya, Friars Minor (O.F.M.), Apostolic Vicar of Apostolic Vicariate of El Beni (Bolivia) (1986.11.17 –...).</p><br>
<p>Buthrotum  was an ancient Greek and later Roman city and bishopric in Epirus. Inhabited since prehistoric times, Buthrotum was a city of the Greek tribe of the Chaonians, later a Roman colony and a bishopric. It entered into decline in Late Antiquity, before being abandoned during the Middle Ages after a major earthquake flooded most of the city. In modern times it is an archeological site in Vlorë County, Albania, some 14 kilometres south of Sarandë and close to the Greek border. It is located on a hill overlooking the Vivari Channel and is part of the Butrint National Park. Today Bouthrotum is a Latin Catholic titular see.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Ancient</h3><br>
<p>Bouthroton was originally a town within the Adriatic Balkan region of Epirus. It was one of the major centres of the Greek tribe of the Chaonians, with close contacts to the Corinthian colony of Corcyra (modern Corfu). According to the Roman writer Virgil, its legendary founder was the seer Helenus, a son of king Priam of Troy, who had moved West after the fall of Troy with Neoptolemus and his concubine Andromache. Both Virgil and the Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus recorded that Aeneas visited Bouthroton after his own escape from the destruction of Troy.</p><br>
<p>The earliest archaeological evidence of settled occupation dates to between 10th and 8th centuries BC, although some claim that there is earlier evidence of habitation in the 12th century BC. Excavation at Bouthroton has yielded Proto-Corinthian pottery of the 7th century and then Corinthian and Attic pottery of the 6th century, however there are no indications of a prehistoric settlement. Bouthroton was in a strategically important position due its access to the Straits of Corfu. By the 4th century BC it had grown in importance and included a theatre, a sanctuary dedicated to Asclepius and an agora. Around 380 BC, the settlement was fortified with a new 870m-long wall, with five gates, enclosing an area of 4ha. The Greek calendar of Bouthroton appears in the oldest known computer, the so-called Antikythera Mechanism (c. 150 to 100 BCE).</p><br>
<p>In 228 BC Buthrotum became a Roman protectorate alongside Corfu. In the next century, it became a part of a province of Macedonia. In 44 BC, Caesar designated Buthrotum as a colony to reward soldiers who had fought for him against Pompey. Local landholder Titus Pomponius Atticus objected to his correspondent Cicero who lobbied against the plan in the Senate. As a result, only small numbers of colonists were settled.</p><br>
<p>In 31 BC, Roman Emperor Augustus fresh from his victory over Mark Antony and Cleopatra at the battle of Actium renewed the plan to make Buthrotum a veterans&#39; colony. New residents expanded the city and the construction included an aqueduct, a Roman bath, houses, a forum complex and a nymphaeum. During that era the size of the town was doubled.</p><br>
<p>In the 3rd century AD, an earthquake destroyed a large part of the town, levelling buildings in the suburbs on the Vrina Plain and in the forum of the city centre. Excavations have revealed that city had already been in decline. However, the settlement survived into the late antique era, becoming a major port in the province of Old Epirus. The town of late antiquity included the grand Triconch Palace, the house of a major local notable that was built around 425.</p><br>
<p>The walls of the city were extensively rebuilt, most probably at the end of the 5th century, perhaps by Byzantine Emperor Anastasius. The Ostrogoths under Indulf raided the Ionian coast in 550 and may have attacked Buthrotum. Evidence from the excavations shows that importation of commodities, wine and oil from the Eastern Mediterranean continued into the early years of the 7th century when the early Byzantine Empire lost these provinces. In this, it follows the historical pattern seen in other Balkanic cities, with the 6th to 7th century being a watershed for the transformation of the Roman world into the Early Middle Ages.</p><br>
<p>By the 7th century, following the model of classical cities throughout the Mediterranean, Buthrotum had shrunk to a much smaller fortified post and with the collapse of Roman power was briefly controlled by First Bulgarian Empire before being regained by the Byzantine Empire in the 9th century.</p><br>
<h3>Medieval and Venetian Period</h3><br>
<p>It remained an outpost of the Byzantine empire fending off assaults from the Normans until 1204 when following the Fourth Crusade, the Byzantine Empire fragmented, Buthrotum falling to the breakaway Despotate of Epirus. In the following centuries, the area was a site of conflict between the Byzantines, the Angevins of southern Italy, and the Venetians, and the city changed hands many times. In 1267, Charles of Anjou took control of both Buthrotum and Corfu, leading to further restorations of the walls and the Great Basilica.</p><br>
<p>The dogal Republic of Venice purchased the area including Corfu from the Angevins in 1386; however, the Venetian merchants were principally interested in Corfu and Buthrotum once again declined. By 1572 the wars between Venice and the Ottoman Empire had left Buthrotum ruinous and at the order of Domenico Foscarini, the Venetian commander of Corfu, the administration of Buthrotum and its environs was shifted to a small triangular fortress associated with the extensive fish weirs. The area was lightly settled afterwards, occasionally being seized by the Ottoman Turks, in 1655 and 1718, before being recaptured by the Venetians. Its fisheries were a vital contributor to the supply of Corfu, and olive growing together with cattle and timber were the principal economic activities.</p><br>
<h3>Modern</h3><br>
<p>The Treaty of Campo Formio of 1797 split between France and Austria the territory of the Republic of Venice, which France had just occupied and abolished, and under article 5 of the treaty, Butrinto and the other former Venetian enclaves in Albania came under French sovereignty.</p><br>
<p>However, in 1799, the local Ottoman governor Ali Pasha Tepelena conquered it, and it became a part of the Ottoman Empire until Albania gained its independence in 1912. By that time, the site of the original city had been unoccupied for centuries and was surrounded by malarial marshes.</p><br>
<h2>Ecclesiastical history</h2><br>
<h3>Residential bishopric</h3><br>
<p>In the early 6th century, Buthrotum became the seat of a bishopric and new construction included the Buthrotum baptistery, one of the largest such paleochristian buildings of its type, and a basilica. The diocese of Buthrotum was initially a suffragan of the Metropolis of Nicopolis, the metropolitan capital of Epirus Vetus and in the papal sway, but in the 9th and 10th centuries it is listed with the suffragans of Naupaktos, which succeeded ruined Nicopolis as provincial capital and metropolis of the new Byzantine theme of Nicopolis. bringing it in the sway of the Byzantine Patriarchate of Constantinople. After the 14th century, it was under the jurisdiction of the Metropolis of Ioannina.</p><br>
<p>Two of its Byzantine (pre-Eastern Schism) bishops are mentioned in extant documents:</p><br>
<p>Stephanus signed the joint letter of the bishops of Epirus Vetus to Emperor Leo I the Thracian in the aftermath of the killing of Patriarch Proterius of Alexandria in 458</p><br>
<p>Matthaeus signed the synodal letter of the bishops of the province to Pope Hormisdas in 516 concerning the ordination of Metropolitan John of Nicopolis. It became a Latin Church see under Angevin and Venetian rule.</p><br>
<h3>Latin residential bishopric</h3><br>
<p>A Latin see was established circa 1250 under the Italian name Butrinto, functioning under Angevin and Venetian rule, but suppressed circa 1400. The 6th-century basilica was rebuilt by king Charles I of Naples in 1267.</p><br>
<p>Nicola, O.P. (? – 1311.02.15)</p><br>
<p>Nicola, O.P. (1311.05.23 – ?)</p><br>
<p>Nicola da Offida, O.F.M. (? – 1349.06.15)</p><br>
<p>Francesco (? – ?)</p><br>
<p>Arnaldo Simone (? – 1355.02.13)</p><br>
<p>Giacomo, O.P. (1356.10.12 – ?)</p><br>
<p>Lazzarino, O.F.M. (1366.02.09 – ?)</p><br>
<h3>Catholic titular see</h3><br>
<p>Buthrotum is today listed by the Catholic Church as a Latin titular see since the diocese was nominally restored in 1933 as titular bishopric of Buthrotum (Latin) / Butrinto (Curiate Italian) / Butrint (Albanian).</p><br>
<p>It is vacant, having had the following incumbents:</p><br>
<p>Louis-Bertrand Tirilly, SS.CC. (1953.11.16 – 1966.06.21) as last Apostolic Vicar of Marquesas Islands</p><br>
<p>George Frendo (2006.07.07 –...), O.P., Auxiliary Bishop of the Archdiocese of Tiranë–Durrës (Albania) (2006.07.07 – 2016.11.17), also Secretary General of Episcopal Conference of Albania (2016.05.05 –...)</p><br>
<p>Friar Giovanni Salonia, O.F.M. Cap., (2017.02.10 – resigned 2017.04.27) as Auxiliary Bishop of Archdiocese of Palermo</p><br>
<h2>Archaeological excavations</h2><br>
<p>The first modern archaeological excavations began in 1928 when the Fascist government of Benito Mussolini&#39;s Italy sent an expedition to Buthrotum. The aim was geopolitical rather than scientific, aiming to extend Italian hegemony in the area. The leader was an Italian archaeologist, Luigi Maria Ugolini who despite the political aims of his mission was a good archaeologist. Ugolini died in 1936, but the excavations continued until 1943 and the Second World War. They uncovered the Hellenistic and Roman part of the city including the "Lion Gate" and the "Scaean Gate" (named by Ugolini for the famous gate at Troy mentioned in the Homeric Iliad).</p><br>
<p>After the communist government of Enver Hoxha took Albania over in 1944, foreign archaeological missions were banned. Albanian archaeologists including Hasan Ceka continued the work. Nikita Khrushchev visited the ruins in 1959 and suggested that Hoxha should turn the area into a submarine base. The Albanian Institute of Archaeology began larger scale excavations in the 1970s. Since 1993 further major excavations have taken place led by the Butrint Foundation in collaboration with the Albanian Institute of Archaeology. Recent excavations in the western defences of the city have revealed evidence of the continued use of the walls, implying the continuation of life in the town. The walls themselves certainly seem to have burnt down in the 9th century, but were subsequently repaired.</p><br>
<p>After the collapse of the communist regime in 1992, the new democratic government planned various major developments at the site. The same year remains of Buthrotum were included in the UNESCO list of World Heritage Sites. A major political and economic crisis in 1997 and lobbying stopped the airport plan and UNESCO placed it on the List of World Heritage in Danger because of looting, lack of protection, management and conservation. Archaeological missions during 1994–9 uncovered further Roman villas and an early Christian church.</p><br>
<h2>Directions</h2><br>
<p>The site of Buthrotum is accessible from Saranda, along a road first built in 1959 for a visit by the Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev. This road was upgraded during the summer of 2010. The construction was somewhat of an environmental disaster and may yet threaten Butrint&#39;s World Heritage Site status. The ancient city is becoming a popular tourist destination, attracting day-trippers from the nearby Greek holiday island of Corfu. Hydrofoils (30 minutes) and ferries (90 minutes) run daily between the New Port in Corfu Town and Saranda. Many visitors from Corfu use chartered coach services to visit Butrint from Saranda, and additionally, a regular public bus service runs between Saranda port and Butrint. Others arrive from the Qafe Bote border crossing with Greece near Konispol and cross the Vivari Channel by the cable ferry at Butrint.</p><br>
<p>Butrint Saranda Panorama.jpg</p><br>
<h2>Notable locals</h2><br>
<p>Saint Therinus, 3rd-century saint</p><br>
<p>Saint Donatus of Evorea, 4th-century saint</p><br>
<h2>Nearby sights</h2><br>
<p>Butrint National Park</p><br>
<p>Tourism in Albania</p><br>
<p>Albanian Riviera</p><br>
<p>Gjirokaster</p><br>
<p>Ksamil</p><br>
<p>Saranda=Sarandë</p><br>
<p>Tongo Island</p><br>
<p>Hollywood Forever Cemetery, originally named Hollywood Cemetery, is one of the oldest cemeteries in Los Angeles. It is located at 6000 Santa Monica Boulevard in the Hollywood district of Los Angeles. Paramount Studios is located at the south end of the same block on 40 acres which were once part of the cemetery, but held no interments.</p><br>
<p>Those in the graves, crypts, niches, and sarcophagi at the cemetery include culturally significant people as well as celebrities, including iconic actors, directors, writers, etc. from the entertainment industry. People who played vital roles in shaping Los Angeles are interred throughout the property. The cemetery is active and regularly hosts community events, including music and summer movie screenings. In 2011, the cemetery acted as co-production company for the American silent movie Silent Life based on the story of the Hollywood idol Rudolph Valentino, who is famously entombed there in what was originally a borrowed crypt.</p><br>
<p>The cemetery contained a Confederate Monument, maintained by the Long Beach chapter of the United Daughters of the Confederacy until Tuesday, August 15, 2017.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The cemetery, the only one actually in Hollywood, was founded in 1899 on 100 acre and called "Hollywood Cemetery" by F. W. Samuelson and one (first name needed) Lombard were in 1897 the owners of a 60-acre tract of land near Hollywood in Los Angeles county. In that year, they, with Mrs. M. W. Gardner of Santa Monica, Joseph D. Rodford, Gilbert Smith, and Thomas R. Wallace, formed a corporation known as the “Hollywood Cemetery Association. The cemetery sold off large tracts to Paramount Studios, which, with RKO Studios, bought 40 acre by 1920. Part of the remaining land was set aside for the Beth Olam Cemetery, a dedicated Jewish burial ground for members of the local Jewish community.</p><br>
<p>In 1939, Jules Roth, a convicted felon and millionaire, bought a 51% stake in the cemetery, the interment site of his parents. He used the money from the cemetery&#39;s operations to pay for personal luxuries and the cemetery, by then known as Hollywood Memorial Park, started to show signs of neglect and disrepair starting in the 1990s.</p><br>
<p>In 1952, despite her expressed wish, Roth would not allow the actress Hattie McDaniel, best known for her role of Mammy in the movie Gone with the Wind, for which she became the first African American to win an Academy Award, to be buried at Hollywood Memorial Park. At the time of her death, Hollywood Memorial, like other cemeteries, was segregated (the cemetery was desegregated in 1959). On the 47th anniversary of McDaniels death, the cemeterys current owner dedicated a cenotaph in her honor at a prime location south of Sylvan Lake.</p><br>
<p>The crematory was shut down in July, 1974 after the cremation of singer Cass Elliot. According to the cemetery grounds supervisor Daniel Ugarte, the crematory was in such disrepair that bricks began falling in around Elliot&#39;s body (the crematory was later repaired and reopened in 2002).</p><br>
<p>By the 1980s, the California Cemetery Board began receiving regular complaints from the families of people interred there. Family members complained that the grounds were not kept up and were disturbed to hear stories about vandalism on the cemetery grounds. The heirs of well-known makeup artist Max Factor (who was interred in the Beth Olam Mausoleum in 1938) moved his and other Factor family remains to Hillside Memorial Park in Culver City after the mausoleum sustained water damage that discolored the walls.</p><br>
<p>In 1986, a Los Angeles woman and 1,000 other plot owners filed a class action lawsuit against the cemetery for invasion of privacy after they discovered that Roth allowed employees of Paramount Pictures to park in the cemetery while the studio&#39;s parking structure was undergoing construction.</p><br>
<p>In the late 1980s, to settle tax bills and maintain his lavish lifestyle, Jules Roth sold two lawns totaling three acres, facing the Santa Monica Boulevard front of the property. It was reported that it was paid for in cash. Those lawns are now strip malls which house, among other businesses, an auto parts store and a laundromat.</p><br>
<p>After the 1994 Northridge earthquake, Roth couldn&#39;t afford to repair the roofs and other damage the earthquake caused to crypts. By that time, Hollywood Memorial was no longer making money and only generated revenue by charging families $500 for disinterments.</p><br>
<p>In 1997, Roth became ill after he fell in his Hollywood Hills home. He had been embroiled in a scandal regarding another cemetery he owned, Lincoln Memorial Park, in Carson, California. Several months before his death, Roth was bedridden and disoriented and during this time his will was changed to provide for his business associates and maid, who were the only witnesses to his signature. His relatives, which were listed in his previous will, were written out. Roth died on January 4, 1998, and he was interred next to his wife Virginia, his father, and his mother in the Cathedral Mausoleum. The state of California had revoked the cemetery&#39;s license to sell its remaining interment spaces.</p><br>
<p>After Roths death, it was discovered that the cemeterys endowment care fund, meant to care for the cemetery in perpetuity, was missing about $9 million, according to the current owner. This owner also claimed that he discovered Mr. Roths bust in an antique shop, however it was part of Mr. Roths personal artifacts that were sold at auction.</p><br>
<p>Those owners, Tyler and Brent Cassity, purchased the now 62 acre property which was on the verge of closure in a bankruptcy proceeding, in 1998 for $375,000. They renamed the cemetery "Hollywood Forever" and set-out to give it a complete renaissance, restoring, refurbishing and adding to it, investing millions in revitalizing the grounds and also offering documentaries about the deceased that are to be played in perpetuity on kiosks and are posted on the Web, as well as organizing tours to draw visitors.</p><br>
<p>In 2010, Brent Cassity and his father, along with several others, were indicted for running a Ponzi-like scheme stealing hundreds of millions of dollars from pre-need funeral contracts. Authorities later found that the money the brothers invested in the cemetery came from the proceeds of the scheme.</p><br>
<p>The cemetery has, since 2002, screened films at a gathering called Cinespia on weekends during the summer and on holidays. The screenings are held on the Douglas Fairbanks Lawn and the films are projected onto the white marble west wall of the Cathedral Mausoleum. Music events take place in the cemetery as well. On June 14 and 15, 2011, The Flaming Lips played at the cemetery in a two-night gig billed "Everyone You Know Someday Will Die," a lyric from their 2002 single "Do You Realize??".</p><br>
<p>On August 17th 2013, electronic/industrial icon Gary Numan recorded a live album at the cemetery during his Splinter World Tour. It was released on February 19th 2016.</p><br>
<h2>Cultural references</h2><br>
<p>The 1983 horror film One Dark Night starring Meg Tilly and Adam West used the two mausoleums at Hollywood Forever Cemetery for the interior and exterior shots of the mausoleum in the film.</p><br>
<p>The award-winning film An Ordinary Couple was inspired by the building of a Hollywood Forever monument in the Garden of Legends and stars Bernardo Puccio and Orin Kennedy.</p><br>
<p>A documentary about the cemetery called The Young and the Dead, was made in 2000.</p><br>
<p>The cemetery is briefly shown in the short Stopover in Hollywood. The television series 90210 featured the cemetery in the episode "Hollywood Forever".</p><br>
<p>In one scene of the novel Expiration Date by Tim Powers, the main characters are evading the antagonists of the novel by hiding in Hollywood Forever Cemetery. At one point the main hero, Pete Sullivan, remarks at the tomb of Bugsy Siegel that his late Hollywood producer father was friends with Siegel and many of the other celebrities interred at Hollywood Forever. To illustrate, Sullivan knocks the first few beats of "Shave-and-a-Haircut" on the marble slab of Siegel&#39;s crypt, and, a moment later, receives the response "Two-Bits" knocked from inside the crypt.</p><br>
<p>In Episode Blues from Laurel Canyon in Season 2 of Showtimes Californication character Lew Ashbys grave is depicted at Hollywood Forever Cemetery.</p><br>
<p>A scene from the 2010 movie Valentine&#39;s Day took place in the cemetery. The movie shown in the cemetery was Hot Spell (1958).</p><br>
<p>A song entitled "Hollywood Forever Cemetery Sings" appears on Father John Misty&#39;s debut album, Fear Fun.</p><br>
<p>In 2012, Los Angeles heavy metal band L.A. Guns released an album entitled Hollywood Forever, which also contains a title track. A music video for one of the album&#39;s tracks, "Requiem" featured excerpts filmed on location at the Hollywood Forever Cemetery.</p><br>
<p>Hollywood Forever Cemetery was featured on CNBC’s American Greed episode “Six Feet Plunder”: it detailed how the cemetery was purchased and owned by brothers Tyler and Brent Cassity, with some of the funds coming from National Prearranged Services, Inc., a ponzi scheme run by the Cassity family.</p><br>
<p>The cemetery was featured in the 2014 horror comedy Burying the Ex.</p><br>
<p>The 2015 movie Woman in Gold had a funeral scene near the Watchorn obelisk.</p><br>
<p>Talking Dead hosted a live 90-minute season premiere on the grounds, immediately following the Season 7 premiere of The Walking Dead. The grounds were also used to air the series finale of Breaking Bad.</p><br>
<h2>Notable burials</h2><br>
<p>Use the following alphabetical links to find someone:</p><br>
<h3>A</h3><br>
<p>David Abel (1883–1973), cinematographer (aged 90)</p><br>
<p>Joseph Achron (1886–1943), musician (aged 56)</p><br>
<p>Bert Adams (1891–1940), MLB player (aged 49)</p><br>
<p>Don Adams (1923–2005), actor, Agent Maxwell Smart on TV&#39;s Get Smart (aged 82)</p><br>
<p>Louis Adlon (1908–1947), actor (aged 39)</p><br>
<p>Renée Adorée (1898–1933), actress (aged 35)</p><br>
<p>Gilbert Adrian (1903–1959), MGM costume designer (aged 56)</p><br>
<p>Helen Ainsworth (1902–1961), actress/producer (aged 59)</p><br>
<p>Spottiswoode Aitken (1868–1933), actor (aged 64)</p><br>
<p>Albert Akst (1899–1958), film editor (aged 57)</p><br>
<p>Norman Alden (1924–2012), actor (aged 87)</p><br>
<p>Erville Alderson (1882–1957), actor (aged 74)</p><br>
<p>Frank Alexander (1879–1937), actor (aged 58)</p><br>
<p>J. Grubb Alexander (1887–1932), screenwriter (aged 44)</p><br>
<p>Charlie Allen (1942–1990), singer (aged 48)</p><br>
<p>Lester Allen (1891–1949), actor (aged 57)</p><br>
<p>Murray Alper (1904–1984), actor (aged 80)</p><br>
<p>Albert Edward Anson (1879–1936), actor (aged 57)</p><br>
<p>Andrew Arbuckle (1887–1939), actor (aged 51)</p><br>
<p>Gus Arnheim (1897–1955), composer (aged 58)</p><br>
<p>Sylvia Ashley (1904–1977), actress/socialite (aged 73)</p><br>
<p>A.E. Anson (1879–1936), actor (aged 56)</p><br>
<p>Gertrude Astor (1887–1977), actress (aged 90)</p><br>
<p>David Avadon (1948–2009), magician and illusionist (aged 60)</p><br>
<p>Charles Avery (1873–1926), actor (aged 53)</p><br>
<p>Agnes Ayres (1898–1940), actress (aged 42)</p><br>
<h3>B</h3><br>
<p>Leah Baird (1883–1971), actress/screenwriter (aged 88)</p><br>
<p>Charles Graham Baker (1883–1950), screenwriter/director (aged 66)</p><br>
<p>Reginald Baker (1884–1953), actor/athlete/stuntman (aged 69)</p><br>
<p>Fred J. Balshofer (1877–1969), director/producer (aged 91)</p><br>
<p>Peter Bardens (1945–2002), musician, founding member of the progressive rock band, Camel (aged 57)</p><br>
<p>George Barnes (1892–1953), cinematographer (aged 60)</p><br>
<p>Anne Bauchens (1882–1967), film editor (aged 85)</p><br>
<p>Frank Beal (1862–1934), actor/director/screenwriter (aged 72)</p><br>
<p>James Beatty (1836–1927), federal judge in Idaho (aged 91)</p><br>
<p>William Beaudine (1892–1970), director and actor (aged 78)</p><br>
<p>Tony Beckley (1929–1980), actor (aged 50)</p><br>
<p>Monta Bell (1891–1958), director (aged 66)</p><br>
<p>Elmer Berger (1891–1952), inventor of the rear-view mirror (aged 61)</p><br>
<p>Harry Bernard (1878–1940), actor/comedian (aged 62)</p><br>
<p>Vic Berton (1896–1951), musician (aged 55)</p><br>
<p>Herman Bing (1889–1947), actor (aged 57)</p><br>
<p>Maurice Black (1891–1938), actor (aged 47)</p><br>
<p>Paula Blackton (1881–1930), actress/director (aged 48)</p><br>
<p>Richard Blackwell (1922–2008), fashion critic (aged 86)</p><br>
<p>Mel Blanc (1908–1989), actor, comedian, and voice-over artist of Looney Tunes and Hanna-Barbera cartoons; his tombstone has one of the most famous epitaphs, "That&#39;s all folks" (aged 81)</p><br>
<p>Lucille Bliss (1916–2012), actress/voice artist (aged 96)</p><br>
<p>Lilian Bond (1908–1991), actress (aged 83)</p><br>
<p>Gypsy Boots (1914–2004), fitness guru (aged 89)</p><br>
<p>Egon Brecher (1880–1946), actor/director (aged 66)</p><br>
<p>Joseph Carl Breil (1870–1926), singer/composer/director (aged 55)</p><br>
<p>El Brendel (1890–1964), actor/comedian (aged 74)</p><br>
<p>Felix Bressart (1892–1949), actor (aged 57)</p><br>
<p>Jack Brooks (1912–1971), composer (aged 59)</p><br>
<p>Coral Browne (1913–1991), actress (aged 77)</p><br>
<p>Edward Bunker (1933–2005), actor/screenwriter/novelist (aged 71)</p><br>
<p>James O. Barrows (1855–1925), actor (aged 70)</p><br>
<p>Charles Belcher (1872–1943), actor (aged 71)</p><br>
<p>Ted Bennett (1872–1941), actor (aged 69)</p><br>
<p>Clara Beranger (1886–1956), screenwriter (aged 70)</p><br>
<h3>C</h3><br>
<p>Louis Calhern (1895–1956), actor (aged 61)</p><br>
<p>Eduardo Cansino, Jr (1919-1974), actor, youngest brother of Rita Hayworth (aged 54)</p><br>
<p>Edwin Carewe (1883–1940), actor/director/producer/screenwriter (aged 56)</p><br>
<p>Horace B. Carpenter (1875-1945), actor (aged 70)</p><br>
<p>Lynn Cartwright (1927–2004), actress, wife of Leo Gordon (aged 77)</p><br>
<p>Joseph Cawthorn (1868-1949), actor (aged 80)</p><br>
<p>Harry Chandler (1864–1944) publisher of the Los Angeles Times and investor (aged 80)</p><br>
<p>Charles Chaplin Jr. (1925–1968), actor, son of Charlie Chaplin (aged 42)</p><br>
<p>Emile Chautard (1864–1934), actor/director/screenwriter (aged 69)</p><br>
<p>Al Christie (1881–1951), director/producer and screenwriter (aged 69)</p><br>
<p>Charles Christie (1880–1955), movie studio owner (aged 75)</p><br>
<p>Gertrude Claire (1852–1928), actress (aged 75)</p><br>
<p>William Andrews Clark, Jr. (1877–1934), founder of the Los Angeles Philharmonic (aged 57)</p><br>
<p>Lana Clarkson (1962–2003), actress/model (aged 40)</p><br>
<p>Dark Cloud (1855-1918), actor and model (aged 62)</p><br>
<p>Iron Eyes Cody (1904–1999), actor (aged 94)</p><br>
<p>Art Cohn (1909-1958), screenwriter (aged 48)</p><br>
<p>Harry Cohn (1891–1958), founder of Columbia Pictures (aged 66)</p><br>
<p>Robert Cohn (1920-1996), motion picture producer (aged 75)</p><br>
<p>Cornelius Cole (1822–1924), California Congressional Representative and USA Senator (aged 102)</p><br>
<p>Thomas F. Cooke (1863–1941), Los Angeles City Council member, (1929–1931) (aged 78)</p><br>
<p>Lillian Kemble-Cooper (1892–1977), actress and singer, wife of actor Guy Bates Post (aged 85)</p><br>
<p>Lois Collier (1922-1999), actress (aged 80)</p><br>
<p>Pierre Collings (1902-1937), screenwriter (aged 35)</p><br>
<p>Edward Connelly (1859-1928), actor (aged 68)</p><br>
<p>Morty Corb (1917–1996), jazz musician (aged 78)</p><br>
<p>Chris Cornell (1964-2017), musician, lead singer of the bands Soundgarden, Audioslave, and Temple of the Dog (aged 52)</p><br>
<p>Norman Cousins (1915-1990), author and editor (aged 75)</p><br>
<p>William Henry Crane (1845–1928), actor (aged 82)</p><br>
<p>Henry Cronjager (1877-1967), cinematographer, Father of Edward Cronjager (aged 90)</p><br>
<p>Alan Crosland (1894–1936), director (aged 41)</p><br>
<p>James Cruze (1884–1942), actor/director (aged 58)</p><br>
<p>Irving Cummings (1888–1959), film director and actor (aged 70)</p><br>
<h3>D</h3><br>
<p>Orlando da Costa (1929–2006), Portuguese Minister (aged 77)</p><br>
<p>Cass Daley (1915–1975), actress/comedian/singer (aged 59)</p><br>
<p>Viola Dana (1897–1987), actress (aged 90)</p><br>
<p>Karl Dane (1886–1934), actor (aged 47)</p><br>
<p>Bebe Daniels (1901–1972), actress (aged 70)</p><br>
<p>Joe Dassin (1938–1980), American-born French singer/songwriter (aged 41)</p><br>
<p>Marion Davies (1897–1961), actress (aged 64)</p><br>
<p>Reine Davies (1883-1938), actress (aged 51)</p><br>
<p>Rosemary Davies (1903-1963), actress (aged 60)</p><br>
<p>Harry J. Davenport (1858-1929), actor (aged 71)</p><br>
<p>Milla Davenport (1871-1936), actress (aged 65)</p><br>
<p>William De Vaull (1871-1945), actor (aged 74)</p><br>
<p>Ashton Dearholt (1894-1942), actor (aged 48)</p><br>
<p>Harry Delmar (1892-1984), producer/director (aged 91)</p><br>
<p>Cecil B. DeMille (1881–1959), director/producer (aged 77)</p><br>
<p>Constance Adams DeMille (1874-1960), actress, wife of Cecil B. DeMille (aged 86)</p><br>
<p>William C. DeMille (1878–1955), director/writer (aged 76)</p><br>
<p>Basil Dickey (1880–1958), screenwriter (aged 77)</p><br>
<p>Gloria Dickson (1917–1945), actress (aged 27)</p><br>
<p>John Frances Dillon (1884–1934), actor/director (aged 49)</p><br>
<p>Andreas Dippel (1866-1932), opera singer (aged 65)</p><br>
<p>Molly Dodd (1921–1981), actress (aged 59)</p><br>
<p>Frances Drake (1912–2000), actress (aged 87)</p><br>
<p>Larry Drake (1949-2016), actor (aged 67)</p><br>
<p>Jesse Duffy (1894–1952), screenwriter (aged 58)</p><br>
<p>Bobby Dunn (1890–1937), actor/comedian (aged 46)</p><br>
<p>Richard Dunn (1936–2010), actor (aged 73)</p><br>
<p>Elmer Dyer (1892–1970), cinematographer (aged 78)</p><br>
<h3>E</h3><br>
<p>B. Reeves Eason (1886–1956), actor/director/screenwriter (aged 69)</p><br>
<p>B. Reeves Eason, Jr. (1914-1921), actor (aged 6)</p><br>
<p>Maude Eburne (1875–1960), actress (aged 85)</p><br>
<p>Nelson Eddy (1901–1967), actor/singer (aged 65)</p><br>
<p>Robert Edeson (1868–1931), actor (aged 62)</p><br>
<p>Walker Edmiston (1925–2007), actor/voice actor (aged 82)</p><br>
<p>Lillian Elliott (1874–1959), actress (aged 84)</p><br>
<p>Louise Emmons (1861-1935), actress (aged 74)</p><br>
<p>Billy Engle (1889–1966), actor (aged 77)</p><br>
<p>Skinnay Ennis (1907–1963), musician (aged 56)</p><br>
<p>Fred Esmelton (1872-1933), actor (aged 61)</p><br>
<p>Douglas Evans (1904-1968), actor (aged 64)</p><br>
<p>Charles Eyton (1871–1941), former general manager of Paramount Pictures (aged 70)</p><br>
<h3>F</h3><br>
<p>Max Fabian (1891-1969), cinematographer (aged 78)</p><br>
<p>Douglas Fairbanks (1883–1939), actor (aged 56)</p><br>
<p>Douglas Fairbanks, Jr. (1909–2000), actor (aged 90)</p><br>
<p>Mabel Fairbanks (1915-2001), figure skater (aged 85)</p><br>
<p>Marion Fairfax (1875–1970), screenwriter (aged 94)</p><br>
<p>Daniel L. Fapp (1904-1986), screenwriter (aged 82)</p><br>
<p>Timothy Farrell (1922–1989), actor (aged 66)</p><br>
<p>Julia Faye (1893–1966), actress (aged 73)</p><br>
<p>Maude Fealy (1883–1971), actress (aged 88)</p><br>
<p>Charles K. Feldman (1904–1968), agent/film producer (aged 64)</p><br>
<p>Hugo Felix (1866–1934), composer (aged 68)</p><br>
<p>Mark Fenton (1866–1925), actor (aged 58)</p><br>
<p>Flora Finch (1869–1940), actress (aged 71)</p><br>
<p>Peter Finch (1916–1977), actor (aged 60)</p><br>
<p>Victor Fleming (1889–1949), director (aged 59)</p><br>
<p>Edna Flugrath (1893–1966), actress (aged 73)</p><br>
<p>John Taintor Foote (1881–1950), writer (aged 68)</p><br>
<p>John Foreman (1925–1992), film producer (aged 67)</p><br>
<p>Kim Fowley (1939–2015), singer/actor/songwriter/music producer/publisher (aged 75)</p><br>
<p>Sidney Franklin (1893–1972), director (aged 79)</p><br>
<p>Kathleen Freeman (1919–2001), actress (aged 82)</p><br>
<p>Otto Fries (1887–1938), actor (aged 50)</p><br>
<p>Joe Frisco (1889–1958), actor/comedian (aged 69)</p><br>
<p>George Froeschel (1891–1979), screenwriter (aged 88)</p><br>
<p>Leo Fuchs (1911–1994), actor (aged 83)</p><br>
<h3>G</h3><br>
<p>Victor A. Gangelin (1899–1967), set designer (aged 68)</p><br>
<p>Ed Gardner (1901–1963), actor/comedian (aged 62)</p><br>
<p>Judy Garland (1922-1969), actress, singer (aged 47)</p><br>
<p>Tony Gaudio (1883–1951), cinematographer (aged 67)</p><br>
<p>Janet Gaynor (1906–1984), actress (aged 77)</p><br>
<p>Gidget Gein (1969–2008), musician/bassist for Marilyn Manson (aged 39)</p><br>
<p>Carmelita Geraghty (1901–1966), actress, wife of Carey Wilson (aged 65)</p><br>
<p>Estelle Getty (1923–2008), actress/comedian (aged 84)</p><br>
<p>Maury Gertsman (1907–1999), cinematographer (aged 92)</p><br>
<p>Etienne Girardot (1856–1939), actor (aged 83)</p><br>
<p>Leo Gordon (1922–2000), actor, husband of Lynn Cartwright (aged 78)</p><br>
<p>Vera Gordon (1886-1948), actress (aged 62)</p><br>
<p>Archie Gottler (1896–1959), director/screenwriter/composer/actor (aged 63)</p><br>
<p>Griffith J. Griffith (1850–1919), park and observatory donor, namesake of Griffith Park (aged 69)</p><br>
<p>Bob Guccione (1930–2010), magazine publisher, founder of Penthouse (aged 79)</p><br>
<h3>H</h3><br>
<p>George Hackathorne (1896–1940), actor (aged 44)</p><br>
<p>Joan Hackett (1934–1983), actress (aged 49)</p><br>
<p>Bianca Halstead (1965–2001), musician (aged 36)</p><br>
<p>Harley Hamilton (1861–1933), musician (aged 72)</p><br>
<p>John Hamilton (1887–1958), actor (aged 71)</p><br>
<p>Curtis Harrington (1926–2007), director (aged 80)</p><br>
<p>Kenneth Harlan (1895–1967), actor (aged 72)</p><br>
<p>Mildred Harris (1901–1944), actress (aged 42)</p><br>
<p>Don C. Harvey (1911–1963), actor (aged 51)</p><br>
<p>Jean Havez (1869–1925), songwriter (aged 55)</p><br>
<p>Wanda Hawley (1895–1963), actress (aged 68)</p><br>
<p>Lennie Hayton (1908–1971), composer, conductor and arranger (aged 63)</p><br>
<p>Lillie Hayward (1891–1977), actress/screenwriter (aged 85)</p><br>
<p>Pauline Pfeiffer Hemingway (1895–1951), wife of Ernest Hemingway (aged 55)</p><br>
<p>Woody Herman (1913–1987), musician, clarinetist (aged 74)</p><br>
<p>Benjamin Franklin Hilliker (1843–1916), Medal of Honor recipient (aged 73)</p><br>
<p>Darla Hood (1931–1979), actress/singer (aged 47)</p><br>
<p>David Horsley (1873–1933), built the first Hollywood movie studio (aged 60)</p><br>
<p>Jean Howard (1910–2000), actress/photographer (aged 89)</p><br>
<p>H. Bruce Humberstone (1901–1984), actor and director (aged 82)</p><br>
<p>William J. Hunsaker (1855–1933), politician/attorney (aged 77)</p><br>
<p>John Huston (1906–1987), actor, director/screenwriter (aged 81)</p><br>
<h3>J</h3><br>
<p>Steve James (1952–1993), actor (aged 41)</p><br>
<p>Rick Jason (1923–2000), actor (aged 77)</p><br>
<p>Herb Jeffries (1913-2014), singer and actor (aged 100)</p><br>
<p>Christopher Jones (1941–2014), actor (aged 72)</p><br>
<p>Walter Jurmann (1903–1971), composer (aged 68)</p><br>
<p>Fran Jeffries (1937-2016), actress & singer (aged 79)</p><br>
<h3>K</h3><br>
<p>Olga Kaljakin (1950–2008), film poster designer (aged 57)</p><br>
<p>Bronisław Kaper (1902–1983), composer (aged 81)</p><br>
<p>Jenny Twitchell Kempton (1835–1921), singer (aged 85)</p><br>
<p>May Kitson (1866–1943), actress (aged 70)</p><br>
<p>Skelton Knaggs (1911–1955), actor (aged 43)</p><br>
<p>Andrew Koenig (1968-2010), actor and filmmaker (aged 41)</p><br>
<p>Zoltán Korda (1895–1961), director (aged 66)</p><br>
<p>Erich Wolfgang Korngold (1897–1957), composer (aged 60)</p><br>
<h3>L</h3><br>
<p>Don LaFontaine (1940–2008), voice-over actor (aged 68)</p><br>
<p>Arthur Lake (1905–1987), actor (aged 81)</p><br>
<p>Barbara La Marr (1896–1926), actress (aged 29)</p><br>
<p>Jesse L. Lasky (1880–1958), pioneer, founded Famous Players-Lasky, which became Paramount Pictures (aged 77)</p><br>
<p>Jesse Lasky, Jr. (1910–1988), screenwriter, son of Jesse Lasky (aged 77)</p><br>
<p>Florence Lawrence (1890–1938), actress (aged 48)</p><br>
<p>Lillian Lawrence (1868–1926), actress (aged 58)</p><br>
<p>Henry Lehrman (1886–1946), director (aged 60)</p><br>
<p>Edward LeSaint (1870–1940), actor (aged 69)</p><br>
<p>Elmo Lincoln (1889–1952), actor (aged 63)</p><br>
<p>Perry Lopez (1929–2008), actor (aged 78)</p><br>
<p>Peter Lorre (1904–1964), actor (aged 59)</p><br>
<p>Ben Lyon (1901–1979), actor (aged 78)</p><br>
<h3>M</h3><br>
<p>Robert S. MacAlister (1897–1957), Los Angeles City Council member, (1934–39)(aged 60)</p><br>
<p>Jeanie MacPherson (1887–1946), actress, screenwriter (aged 59)</p><br>
<p>Richard Maibaum (1909–1991), screenwriter (aged 81)</p><br>
<p>Leo D. Maloney (1888–1929), pioneer actor/director and producer (aged 41)</p><br>
<p>Jayne Mansfield (1933–1967), actress (she has a cenotaph; she is buried in Fairview Cemetery in Pen Argyl, Pennsylvania) (aged 34)</p><br>
<p>Paul Marco (1927–2006), actor (aged 78)</p><br>
<p>Tully Marshall (1864–1943), actor/producer and director (aged 78)</p><br>
<p>Hattie McDaniel (1895–1952), actress, (She has a cenotaph; she is buried in Angelus-Rosedale Cemetery; (aged 57)</p><br>
<p>Darren McGavin (1922–2006), actor (aged 83)</p><br>
<p>Adolphe Menjou (1890–1963), actor (aged 73)</p><br>
<p>Charles B. Middleton (1874–1949), actor (aged 74)</p><br>
<p>Arthur Charles Miller (1895–1970), cinematographer (aged 75)</p><br>
<p>Laura Spellman-Middleton (1890–1945), actress (aged 55)</p><br>
<p>Rhea Mitchell (1890–1957), actress (aged 66)</p><br>
<p>Robert Mitchell (1912–2009), organist (aged 96)</p><br>
<p>Paul Muni (1895–1967), actor (aged 71)</p><br>
<h3>N</h3><br>
<p>Dudley Nichols (1895–1960), screenwriter (aged 64)</p><br>
<p>Jack Nitzsche (1937-2000), composer (aged 63)</p><br>
<p>Maila Nurmi (1922–2008), actress and television host known as Vampira (aged 85)</p><br>
<h3>O</h3><br>
<p>Donald Allen Oreck (1930–2006), actor (aged 75)</p><br>
<p>Harrison Gray Otis (1837–1917), Los Angeles Times publisher (aged 80)</p><br>
<p>Frank Overton (1918–1967), actor (aged 49)</p><br>
<h3>P</h3><br>
<p>Art Pepper (1925–1982), musician, saxophonist (aged 56)</p><br>
<p>Barbara Pepper (1915–1969), actress (aged 54)</p><br>
<p>Joan Perry (1911-1996), actress (aged 85)</p><br>
<p>Tomata du Plenty (1948–2000) singer, founder of the punk band, The Screamers (aged 52)</p><br>
<p>Ben Pollack (1903–1971), drummer and bandleader (aged 67)</p><br>
<p>Guy Bates Post (1875–1968), actor (aged 92)</p><br>
<p>Eleanor Powell (1912–1982), actress/dancer (aged 69)</p><br>
<p>Tyrone Power (1914–1958), actor (aged 44)</p><br>
<p>Marie Prevost (1898–1937), actress (aged 38)</p><br>
<p>Madelyn Pugh (1921–2011), co-writer of I Love Lucy (aged 90)</p><br>
<h3>R</h3><br>
<p>Dee Dee Ramone (Douglas Glenn Colvin) (1952–2002), musician and member of The Ramones</p><br>
<p>Johnny Ramone (1948–2004), musician and member of The Ramones (his ashes were retained by his wife and, after her death, they will both be inurned in the Ramone statue) (aged 55)</p><br>
<p>Virginia Rappe (1895–1921), actress who died after a party thrown by Roscoe "Fatty" Arbuckle</p><br>
<p>Marie Rappold (1879–1957), singer (aged 80)</p><br>
<p>Tom Reddin (1916–2004), LAPD police chief (1964–1969)</p><br>
<p>Rodd Redwing (1904–1971), actor, world&#39;s greatest quick draw artist</p><br>
<p>George Regas (1890–1940), actor</p><br>
<p>Pedro Regas (1897–1974), actor</p><br>
<p>Tom Ricketts (1853–1939), actor and director</p><br>
<p>Nelson Riddle (1921–1985), musician/composer</p><br>
<p>Dylan Rieder (1988-2016), profesional skateboarder</p><br>
<p>Al Ritz (1901–1965), actor/comedian, member of Ritz Brothers</p><br>
<p>Harry Ritz (1907–1985), actor/comedian, member of Ritz Brothers</p><br>
<p>Jimmy Ritz (1904–1986), actor/comedian, member of Ritz Brothers</p><br>
<p>Theodore Roberts (1861–1928), actor</p><br>
<p>Edward G. Robinson Jr. (1933–1974), actor, son of Edward G. Robinson (aged 40)</p><br>
<p>Mickey Rooney (1920–2014), actor and entertainer</p><br>
<p>Harold Rosson (1895–1988), cinematographer</p><br>
<h3>S</h3><br>
<p>Hans J. Salter (1896–1994), composer</p><br>
<p>Hyman B. Samuels (1909–1973), third husband of actress Lynne Roberts</p><br>
<p>Tom Santschi (1880–1931), actor</p><br>
<p>Ann Savage (1921–2008), actress</p><br>
<p>Joseph Schildkraut (1896–1964), actor</p><br>
<p>Rudolph Schildkraut (1862–1930), actor, father of actor, Joseph Schildkraut</p><br>
<p>Leon Schlesinger (1884–1949), head of animation at Warner Bros.</p><br>
<p>Herman Schopp (1899–1954), cinematographer</p><br>
<p>Tony Scott (1944–2012), producer/director, younger brother of director/producer, Ridley Scott</p><br>
<p>Vito Scotti (1918–1996), actor</p><br>
<p>Rolfe Sedan (1896–1982), actor</p><br>
<p>Harry Semels (1887–1946), actor</p><br>
<p>Dirk Shafer (1962–2015), model and actor</p><br>
<p>Peggy Shannon (1907–1941), actress</p><br>
<p>Ann Sheridan (1915–1967), actress</p><br>
<p>Natasha Shneider (1956–2008), musician, actress</p><br>
<p>Bugsy Siegel (1906–1947), gangster</p><br>
<p>Jerry Siegel (1914–1996), co-creator of Superman comic books</p><br>
<p>Chief Luther Standing Bear (1868–1939), Sioux Nation actor</p><br>
<p>Vsevolod Starosselsky (1875–1953), Russian émigré, former military commander</p><br>
<p>Ford Sterling (1883–1939), actor</p><br>
<p>Yma Sumac (1922–2008), Peruvian singer/actress</p><br>
<p>Josef Swickard (1866–1940), actor</p><br>
<p>Carl "Alfalfa" Switzer (1927–1959), actor</p><br>
<p>Harold Switzer (1925–1967), actor, older brother of Carl Switzer</p><br>
<h3>T</h3><br>
<p>Constance Talmadge (1898–1973), actress (aged 75)</p><br>
<p>Natalie Talmadge (1896–1969), actress (aged 73)</p><br>
<p>Norma Talmadge (1894–1957), actress (aged 63)</p><br>
<p>Eva Tanguay (1878–1947), singer (aged 71)</p><br>
<p>Estelle Taylor (1894–1958), actress (aged 63)</p><br>
<p>William Desmond Taylor (1872–1922), director (aged 49)</p><br>
<p>Verree Teasdale (1903–1987), actress (aged 83)</p><br>
<p>Terry (1933–1945), dog actress, best known for playing Toto in The Wizard of Oz. Terry has a cenotaph; following her death in 1945, she was buried on owner/trainer Carl Spitz&#39;s ranch in Studio City. The grave was subsequently destroyed during the construction of the Ventura Freeway in 1958 (aged 11 years)</p><br>
<p>Charles E. Toberman (1880–1981), builder of the Hollywood Roosevelt Hotel (aged 101)</p><br>
<p>Gregg Toland (1904–1948), cinematographer (aged 44)</p><br>
<p>Tamara Toumanova (March 2, 1919 – May 29, 1996), actress (aged 77)</p><br>
<p>Noel Toy (1918–2003), actress/dancer, wife of Carleton Young (aged 84)</p><br>
<p>Victor Travers (1884–1948), actor (aged 64)</p><br>
<p>John Tyrrell (1900–1949), actor (aged 48)</p><br>
<h3>U</h3><br>
<p>Edgar Ulmer (1904–1972), director (aged 68)</p><br>
<h3>V</h3><br>
<p>Rudolph Valentino (1895–1926), actor (aged 31)</p><br>
<p>James Victor (1939–2016), actor (aged 76)</p><br>
<p>Oleg Vidov (1943-2017), actor (aged 73)</p><br>
<h3>W</h3><br>
<p>George D. Wallace (1917–2005), actor</p><br>
<p>Jean Wallace (1923–1990), actress</p><br>
<p>Franz Waxman (1906–1967), composer</p><br>
<p>Steve Wayne (1920–2004), actor</p><br>
<p>Clifton Webb (1889–1966), actor</p><br>
<p>Ern Westmore (1904–1967), make-up artist, member of the Westmore makeup family (aged 62)</p><br>
<p>David White (1916–1990), actor</p><br>
<p>Marjorie White (1904–1935), actress</p><br>
<p>Hobart Johnstone Whitley (1847–1931), Named Hollywood while honeymooning with his wife; gravesite is marked "The Father Of Hollywood"</p><br>
<p>Harvey Henderson Wilcox (1832–1891), founded the city of Hollywood</p><br>
<p>Rozz Williams (1963–1998), musician</p><br>
<p>Holly Woodlawn (1946–2015), actress, former Warhol superstar, mentioned in Lou Reed&#39;s song, "Walk on the Wild Side"</p><br>
<p>Fay Wray (1907–2004), actress</p><br>
<h3>Y</h3><br>
<p>Anton Yelchin (1989–2016), actor (aged 27)</p><br>
<p>Duke York (1908–1952), actor (aged 43)</p><br>
<p>Victor Young (1899–1956), composer (aged 56)</p><br>
<h3>Z</h3><br>
<p>Eric Zeisl (1905–1959), composer (aged 54)</p><br>
<h2>"Forever Tributes"</h2><br>
<p>The cemeterys website contains Forever Tributes of each star which consist of a video with introduction titles saying, "A Hollywood Forever Tribute, in honor of...(name)". The body of the video contains photos and film clips of the honoree, interviews with friends or relatives, music and narration. The conclusion again shows the honorees name birth and death year. The videos are available through an interactive map of the property on the cemetery website.</p><br>
<p>Hong Kong Island is an island in the southern part of Hong Kong. It has a population of 1,289,500 and its population density is 16,390/km². The island had a population of about 3,000 inhabitants scattered in a dozen fishing villages when it was occupied by the United Kingdom in the First Opium War. In 1842, the island was formally ceded in perpetuity to the UK under the Treaty of Nanking and the City of Victoria was then established on the island by the British Force in honour of Queen Victoria.</p><br>
<p>The Central area on the island is the historical, political and economic centre of Hong Kong. The northern coast of the island forms the southern shore of the Victoria Harbour, which is largely responsible for the development of Hong Kong due to its deep waters favoured by large trade ships.</p><br>
<p>The island is home to many of the most famous sights in Hong Kong, such as "The Peak", Ocean Park, many historical sites and various large shopping centres. The mountain ranges across the island are also famous for hiking.</p><br>
<p>The northern part of Hong Kong Island, together with Kowloon and Tsuen Wan New Town, forms the core urban area of Hong Kong. Their combined area is approximately 88.3 km&sup2; and their combined population (that of the northern part of the island and of Kowloon) is approximately 3,156,500, reflecting a population density of 35,700/km² (91,500/sq. mi.).</p><br>
<p>The island is often referred to locally as "Hong Kong side" or "Island side". This style was formerly applied to many locations (e.g. China-side or even Kowloon Walled City-side) but is now only heard in this form and Kowloon side, suggesting the two sides of the harbour. The form was once more common in Britain than now, such as Surrey-side and is still seen in British placenames like Cheapside, Tyneside, and Teesside, not all of which have an obvious watercourse or boundary with actual sides.</p><br>
<h2>Suburbs and localities</h2><br>
<p>Hong Kong Island comprises the following suburbs/localities of Hong Kong:</p><br>
<p>Aberdeen</p><br>
<p>Admiralty</p><br>
<p>Ap Lei Chau</p><br>
<p>Causeway Bay</p><br>
<p>Central/Chong Wan</p><br>
<p>Chai Wan</p><br>
<p>Cyberport</p><br>
<p>Deep Water Bay</p><br>
<p>East Mid-Levels</p><br>
<p>Fortress Hill</p><br>
<p>Happy Valley</p><br>
<p>Kennedy Town</p><br>
<p>Mid-Levels</p><br>
<p>Mount Davis</p><br>
<p>North Point</p><br>
<p>Pok Fu Lam</p><br>
<p>Quarry Bay</p><br>
<p>Repulse Bay</p><br>
<p>Sai Wan Ho</p><br>
<p>Sai Wan</p><br>
<p>Sai Ying Pun</p><br>
<p>Sandy Bay</p><br>
<p>Shau Kei Wan</p><br>
<p>Shek O</p><br>
<p>Shek Tong Tsui</p><br>
<p>Sheung Wan</p><br>
<p>Siu Sai Wan</p><br>
<p>So Kon Po</p><br>
<p>Stanley</p><br>
<p>Tai Hang</p><br>
<p>Tai Tam</p><br>
<p>Tin Hau</p><br>
<p>Victoria Park</p><br>
<p>Victoria Peak</p><br>
<p>Wan Chai</p><br>
<p>West Mid-Levels</p><br>
<p>Wong Chuk Hang</p><br>
<h2>Administration</h2><br>
<p>Hong Kong Island is not part of the Islands District. Four districts of Hong Kong are located on the island:</p><br>
<p>Central and Western District</p><br>
<p>Eastern District</p><br>
<p>Southern District (including the islands of Ap Lei Chau and Ap Lei Pai)</p><br>
<p>Wan Chai District</p><br>
<p>Hong Kong Island is one of the five Legislative Council geographical constituencies.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>British colony</h3><br>
<p>Hong Kong island became a colony of the British Empire when their forces defeated the Chinese in the First Opium War (1839-1842). The island was populated by only a few thousand people when British empire colonized it, and was thus described as being almost uninhabited.</p><br>
<h3>Japanese invasion and occupation</h3><br>
<p>The Second World War was a dark period for Hong Kong. In the 1930s, the British anticipated a Japanese attack on Hong Kong. As Wong Nai Chung Gap was a strategic important place of defence, large-scale defensive works were constructed there, including anti-aircraft batteries, howitzers, and machine gun nests.</p><br>
<p>The Battle of Hong Kong began on 8 December 1941. British, Canadian, Indian armies and the Hong Kong Volunteer Defence Forces resisted the Japanese invasion commanded by Sakai Takashi, which began eight hours after the attack on Pearl Harbor. However, the Japanese were able to take control of the Hong Kong skies on the first day of attack, outnumbering the defenders. The defenders retreated from the Gin Drinker&#39;s Line and consequently from Kowloon under heavy aerial bombardment and artillery barrage.</p><br>
<p>On 18 December, the Japanese had conquered North Point, reaching Wong Nai Chung Gap on the next day. English and Scottish forces and the Canadian Winnipeg Grenadiers vigorously defended the crucial point of Wong Nai Chung Gap, and for a while successfully secured the passage between Central and the secluded southern parts of the island. Japanese casualties were about 600. However, Allied forces there were ultimately defeated by the Japanese on 23 December, and Wong Nai Chung Reservoir was lost – the only one in Hong Kong at the time. As Wan Chai Gap had also fallen that same day, the British had no choice but to surrender.</p><br>
<p>Hong Kong was surrendered on 25 December 1941, thereafter often called "Black Christmas" by locals. The Governor of Hong Kong, Mark Young, surrendered in person at the temporary Japanese headquarters, on the third floor of the Peninsula Hotel, thus beginning the Japanese occupation of Hong Kong. Isogai Rensuke became the first Japanese governor of Hong Kong. Hyper-inflation and food rationing followed; and the Japanese declared Hong Kong Dollars illegal. The Japanese enforced a repatriation policy throughout the period of occupation because of the scarcity of food and the possible counter-attack of the Allies. As a result, the unemployed were deported to the Mainland, and the population of Hong Kong had dwindled from 1.6 million in 1941 to 600,000 in 1945.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Hong Kong Island is the second-largest island of the territory, the largest being Lantau Island. Its area is 78.59 km², including 6.98 km² of land reclaimed since 1887 and some smaller scale ones since 1851. It makes up approximately 7% of the total territory. It is separated from the mainland (Kowloon Peninsula and New Territories) by Victoria Harbour.</p><br>
<p>Technically Hong Kong Island is part of the Wanshan Archipelago.</p><br>
<p>Most of the hills across the middle of the island are included within the country parks.</p><br>
<h2>Demographics</h2><br>
<p>The population is 1,270,876, which makes up approximately 19% of that of Hong Kong. Its population density is higher than for the whole of Hong Kong, ca. 18,000 per km². However, the population is heavily concentrated along the northern shore. The combined population of Central and Western, Wan Chai, and Eastern is 1,085,500, giving this urbanised part of the island a density of around 26,000 per km², or 67,000 per mi², in its approximately 41.3 km&sup2;.</p><br>
<p>The residents living in the Central and Western and Wanchai districts of Hong Kong island have the highest median household income of any area in Hong Kong. Affluent districts on Hong Kong Island are The Peak, Western Mid-Levels (Conduit Road/Robinson Road/Magazine Gap Road, etc.), Eastern Mid-Levels (Happy Valley/Tai Hang/Jardine&#39;s Lookout), Tai Tam, Deep Water Bay and Repulse Bay.</p><br>
<p>88.5% of Hong Kong Island&#39;s residents are of Chinese descent. The largest ethnic minority groups are Filipinos (4%), Indonesians (2.4%), and White people (2.4%).</p><br>
<p>80.2% of Hong Kong Island&#39;s residents use Cantonese as their usual language, while 8% use English and 1.9% use Mandarin.</p><br>
<h2>Transport</h2><br>
<p>The Island Line of the MTR underground railway network runs exclusively on Hong Kong Island, from Kennedy Town in the west to Chai Wan in the east, along the northern coastline of the island. Tsuen Wan Line and Tseung Kwan O Line have cross-platform interchange stations with the Island Line which extend the metro transport northward across the Victoria Harbour. Tung Chung Line and Airport Express which connect to the Lantau Island and international airport share one single station on the island at Hong Kong Station, north to Central Station and provide pedestrian link between the 2 stations within paid area.</p><br>
<p>The South Island Line will provide metro service from Admiralty to Ap Lei Chau via Wong Chuk Hang. This line is expected to inaugurate in December 2016 and relieve the congested Aberdeen Tunnel during rush hour. North South Corridor, the southward extension of the East Rail Line will also terminate at Admiralty and stop by the Hong Kong Convention and Exhibition Centre before leaving the island, providing direct metro service to the Hong Kong–Shenzhen border checkpoints. This line is tentatively expected to open in 2021. North Island Line is planned to extend Tung Chung Line and Tseung Kwan O Line to be met at Tamar Station. The majority of the extended sections will be situated beneath the reclaimed land of the northern coastline of the island. The project is aimed at sharing the load of the already busy Island Line, but it will not begin construction before 2020.</p><br>
<p>Hong Kong Tramways and the Peak Tram run exclusively on Hong Kong Island, which run from Kennedy Town to Shau Kei Wan, with a branch links from Causeway Bay to Happy Valley and the Central District to Victoria Peak respectively.</p><br>
<p>Hong Kong Island is connected to the Kowloon Peninsula on the mainland by two road-only tunnels (the Cross-Harbour Tunnel and the Western Harbour Tunnel), two MTR railway tunnels (Tsuen Wan Line and Tung Chung Line) and one combined road and MTR rail link tunnel (Eastern Harbour Tunnel, containing the Tseung Kwan O Line and road traffic in separate conduits running side by side). A fourth rail link (Shatin to Central Link from Causeway Bay to Hung Hom) and a fourth harbour-crossing tunnel are being planned in order to solve the congested traffic of the current tunnels in peak hours. There is no bridge between the island and the mainland. A bridge connects Ap Lei Chau and Wong Chuk Hang of Aberdeen on Hong Kong Island. It was opened in 1983 with two lanes and was expanded to four in 1994. Another bridge that connects the two will be used by the South Island Line of MTR in 2016.</p><br>
<p>Mytilene  is a city founded in the 11th century BC. Mytilene is the capital and port of the island of Lesbos and also the capital of the North Aegean Region. The seat of governor of the North Aegean Region is Mytilene. Mytilene is also one of 13 municipalities  on the island of Lesbos. Mytilene is built on the southeast edge of the island. It is also the seat of a metropolitan bishop of the Orthodox church.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>As an ancient city, lying off the east coast, Mytilene was initially confined to a small island just offshore that later was joined to Lesbos, creating a north and south harbor.</p><br>
<p>According to the writings of Homer, the island of Lesvos has been an organized city since 1054 B.C. The early harbor of Mytilene was united during ancient times with a channel 700 meters long and 30 meters wide. The Roman writer Longus speaks of white stone bridges linking the two sides. The Greek word Εύριπο or Euripus is a commonly used term when referring to a strait. The strait allowed ancient sail boats called Triremes, with 3 tiers of rowers or more. The boats that passed were ca. 6 metres wide plus oars and had depth of 2 meters.</p><br>
<p>The areas of the city that were densely populated connected the two bodies of land with marble bridges. They usually followed a curved line. The strait begins at the old market called Apano Skala. It was also close to Metropolis Street and ended at the Southern Harbor. One could argue that the channel transversed what is now called Ermou Street. Over time the strait began to collect silt and earth. There was also human intervention for the protection of the Castle of Mytilene. The strait eventually filled with earth.</p><br>
<p>Mytilene contested successfully with Methymna in the north of the island for the leadership of the island in the 7th century BC and became the centre of the island’s prosperous eastern hinterland. Her most famous citizens were the poets Sappho and Alcaeus and the statesman Pittacus (one of the Seven Sages of ancient Greece). The city was famed for its great output of electrum coins struck from the late 6th through mid-4th centuries BC. Mytilene revolted against Athens in 428 BC but was overcome by an Athenian expeditionary force. The Athenian public assembly voted to massacre all the men of the city and to sell the women and children into slavery but changed its mind the next day. A fast trireme sailed the 186 nmi in less than a day and brought the decision to cancel the massacre.</p><br>
<p>Aristotle lived on Mytilene for two years, 337-335 BC, with his friend and successor, Theophrastus (a native of the island), after becoming the tutor to Alexander, son of King Philip II of Macedon.</p><br>
<p>The Romans, among whom was a young Julius Caesar, successfully defeated Mytilene in 81 BC at the Siege of Mytilene. Although Mytilene supported the losing side in most of the great wars of the 1st century BC, her statesmen succeeded in convincing Rome of her support of the new ruler of the Mediterranean and the city flourished in Roman times.</p><br>
<p>In AD 56, Luke the Evangelist, Paul the Apostle and their companions stopped there briefly on the return trip of Paul&#39;s third missionary journey, having sailed from Assos (about 50 km away). From Mytilene they continued towards Chios.</p><br>
<p>The novel Daphnis and Chloe, by Longus, is set in the country around it and opens with a description of the city.</p><br>
<p>Scholar and historian Zacharias Rhetor, also known as Zacharias of Mytilene was from Mytilene and lived from 465 to around 536. He was made Bishop of Mytilene and may have been a Chalcedonian Christian. He either died and or was deposed around 536 and 553.</p><br>
<p>The city of Mytilene was also home to 9th century Byzantine Saints who were brothers, Saint George the Archbishop of Mytilene, Saint Symeon Stylites of Lesbos, and Saint David the Monk. The Church of Saint Symeon, Mytilene venerates one of the three brothers.</p><br>
<p>Catching the eye of the Empress Zoe, Constantine IX Monomachos was exiled to Mytilene on the island of Lesbos by her second husband, Michael IV. The death of Michael IV and the overthrow of Michael V in 1042 led to Constantine being recalled from his place of exile and appointed as a judge in Greece.</p><br>
<p>Lesbos and Mytilene had an established Jewish population since ancient times. In 1170 Benjamin of Tudela found ten small Jewish communities on the island.</p><br>
<p>In the Middle Ages, it was part of the Byzantine Empire and was occupied for some time by the Seljuqs under Tzachas in 1085. In 1198, the Republic of Venice obtained the right to commerce from the city&#39;s port.</p><br>
<p>In the 13th century, it was captured by the Emperor of Nicaea, Theodore I Laskaris. In 1335, the Byzantines, with the help of Ottoman forces, reconquered the island, then property of the Genoese nobleman Domenico Cattaneo. In 1354, emperor John V Palaiologos gave it to the Genoese adventurer Francesco Gattilusio, who married the emperor&#39;s sister, Maria. They renovated the fortress in 1373, and it remained in Genoese hands until 1462, when it was captured by the Ottoman sultan Mehmed II.</p><br>
<h2>Geography and climate</h2><br>
<p>Mytilene is located in the southeastern part of the island, north and east of the Bay of Gera. It has a land area of 107.46 km&sup2; and a population of 36,196 inhabitants (2001). With a population density of 336.8/km² it is by far the most densely populated municipal unit in Lesbos. The next largest towns in the municipal unit are Vareiá (pop. 1,254), Pámfila (1,247), Mória (1,207), and Loutrá (1,118). The Greek National Road 36 connects Mytilene with Kalloni. Farmlands surround Mytilene, the mountains cover the west and to the north. The airport is located a few kilometres south of town. Since the 2011 local government reform, the cities and towns within the municipality changed.</p><br>
<h3>Province</h3><br>
<p>The province of Mytilene (Επαρχία Μυτιλήνης) was one of the provinces of the Lesbos Prefecture. Its territory corresponded with that of the current municipal units Mytilene, Agiasos, Evergetoulas, Gera, Loutropoli Thermis, Mantamados and Polichnitos. It was abolished in 2006.</p><br>
<h3>Climate</h3><br>
<h2>Demographics</h2><br>
<h2>Economy</h2><br>
<p>Mytilene has a port with ferries to the nearby islands of Lemnos and Chios and Ayvalık and at times Dikili in Turkey. The port also serves the mainland cities of Piraeus, Athens and Thessaloniki. One ship, named during the 2001 IAAF games in Edmonton Aeolos Kenteris, after Kostas Kenteris, used to serve this city (his hometown) with 6-hour routes from Athens and Thessaloniki. The main port serving Mytilene on the Greek mainland is Piraeus.</p><br>
<p>The city produces ouzo. There are more than 15 commercial producers on the island.</p><br>
<p>The city exports sardines harvested from the Bay of Kalloni and olive oil and woodwork.</p><br>
<h2>Landmarks and architecture</h2><br>
<p>The town of Mytilene has a large number of neoclassical buildings, public and private houses. Some of them are the building of the Lesbos Prefecture, the old City Hall, the Experimental Lyceum and various mansions and hotels all over the town.</p><br>
<p>The Baroque church of Saint Therapon dominates at the port with its impressive style.</p><br>
<p>Ancient Theatre of Mytilene</p><br>
<p>Archaeological Museum of Mytilene</p><br>
<p>Castle of Mytilene</p><br>
<p>Church of Saint Symeon, Mytilene</p><br>
<p>Catholic Church of Theotokos, where part of the relics of Saint Valentine are kept</p><br>
<p>Çarşı Hamam ("Market Bath")</p><br>
<p>Ecclesiastical Byzantine Museum of Mytilene</p><br>
<p>Folk Art Museum of Mytilene</p><br>
<p>Monastery of Agios Raphael</p><br>
<p>Museum of Costume and Embroidery of Lesvos</p><br>
<p>Statue of Liberty (Mytilene)</p><br>
<p>Theofilos Museum</p><br>
<p>Yeni Cami, Mytilene</p><br>
<h2>Archaeology</h2><br>
<p>Archaeological investigations at Mytilene began in the late 19th century when Robert Koldewey (later excavator of Babylon) and a group of German colleagues spent many months on the island preparing plans of the visible remains at various ancient sites like Mytilene. Significant excavations, however, do not seem to have started until after the First World War when in the mid-1920s Evangelides uncovered much of the famous theatre (according to Plutarch it was the inspiration for Pompey&#39;s theatre in Rome in 55 BC, the first permanent stone theatre in that city) on the hill on the western side of town. Subsequent work in the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s by various members of the Archaeological Service revealed more of the theatre, including a Roman conversion to a gladiatorial arena. Salvage excavations carried out by the Archaeological Service in many areas of the city have revealed sites going back to the Early Bronze Age although most have been much later (Hellenistic and Roman). Particularly significant is a large stoa over a hundred metres long recently dug on the North Harbour of the city. It is clear from various remains in different parts of the city that Mytilene was indeed laid out on a grid plan as the Roman architect Vitruvius had written.</p><br>
<p>Archaeological excavations carried out between 1984 and 1994 in the Medieval Castle of Mytilene by the University of British Columbia and directed by Caroline and Hector Williams revealed a previously unknown sanctuary of Demeter and Kore of late classical/Hellenistic date and the burial chapel of the Gattelusi, the medieval Genoese family that ruled the northern Aegean from the mid-14th to mid-15th centuries of our era. The Demeter sanctuary included five altars for sacrifices to Demeter and Kore and later also to Cybele, the great mother goddess of Anatolia. Among the discoveries were thousands of oil lamps, terracotta figurines, loom weights and other dedications to the goddesses. Numerous animal bones, especially of piglets, also appeared. The Chapel of St. John served as the church of the castle and as a burial place for the Gattelusi family and its dependents. Although conversion to a mosque after the Ottoman capture of the city in 1462 resulted in the destruction of many graves some remained. The great earthquake of February 1867 damaged the building beyond repair and it was demolished; the Turks built a new mosque over the ruins to replace it later in the 19th century.</p><br>
<p>Other excavations done jointly with the K&#39; Ephoreia of Prehistoric and Classical Antiquities near the North Harbour of the city uncovered a multiperiod site with remains extending from a late Ottoman cemetery (including a "vampire" burial, a middle aged man with 20 cm spikes through his neck, middle and ankles) to a substantial Roman building constructed around a colonnaded courtyard (probably a tavern/brothel in its final phase in the mid-4th century CE) to remains of Hellenistic structures and debris from different Hellenistic manufacturing processes (pottery, figurines, cloth making and dyeing, bronze and iron working) to archaic and classical levels with rich collections of Aeolic grey wares. A section of the late classical city wall runs across the site which was close to the channel that divided the mainland from the off shore island part of the city. Considerable remains of the two moles that protected the large North Harbour of the city are still visible just below or just breaking the surface of the sea; it functioned as the commercial harbour of the ancient city although today it is a quiet place where a few small fishing boats are moored.</p><br>
<p>The city has two excellent archaeological museums, one by the south harbour in an old mansion and the other two hundred metres further north in a large new purpose built structure. The former contains the rich Bronze Age remains from Thermi, a site north of Mytilene dug by the British in the 1930s as well as extensive pottery and figurine displays; the former coach house accommodates ancient inscriptions, architectural pieces, and coins. The latter museum is especially rich in mosaics and sculpture, including the famous late Roman mosaic floor from the "House of Menander" with scenes from plays by that Athenian 4th-century BC playwright. There are also mosaics and finds from other Roman mansions excavated by the Archaeological Service under the direction of the archeologist Mme. Aglaia Archontidou-Argyri.</p><br>
<h2>Education</h2><br>
<p>There are 15 primary schools in Mytilene, along with seven lyceums, and eight gymnasiums. There are six university schools with 3671 undergraduates, the largest in the University of the Aegean. Here also is the Rector, the central administration of the Foundation, the Central Library and the Research Committee of Aegean University. The University of Aegean is housed in privately owned buildings, in rented buildings located in the city centre, and in modern buildings on University Hill.</p><br>
<h2>Sporting teams</h2><br>
<p>Aiolikos, football club</p><br>
<p>Kalloni, football club</p><br>
<h2>Famous Mytilenians</h2><br>
<h3>Ancient</h3><br>
<p>Alcaeus (6th century BC), Greek poet.</p><br>
<p>Sappho, Ancient Greek Lyric Poet. Plato called her "wise" and "Tenth Muse".</p><br>
<p>Pittacus (c. 640-568 BC), one of the Seven Sages of Greece.</p><br>
<p>Hellanicus (mid-5th century BC), Greek historian.</p><br>
<p>Chares (4th century BC), Greek historian and chamberlain to Alexander the Great.</p><br>
<p>Scamon (4th century BC), Greek historian and son of Hellanicus.</p><br>
<p>Praxiphanes (4th century BC), Greek philosopher.</p><br>
<p>Aeschines, Greek rhetorician.</p><br>
<p>Eunicus, Greek sculptor and silversmith.</p><br>
<p>Hermarchus (3rd century BC), Greek philosopher.</p><br>
<p>Potamon (1st century AD), Greek rhetorician.</p><br>
<p>Lesbonax (1st century BC), Greek sophist and rhetorician.</p><br>
<p>Crinagoras (70 BC-18 AD), Greek epigrammatist and ambassador, poet of "Palatine Poetry".</p><br>
<p>Theophanes, middle of 1st century BC, Greek statesman, close friend of Pompey the Great.</p><br>
<p>Theophrastus, Ancient Greek philosopher, student of Aristotle.</p><br>
<p>Christopher (11th century), Greek poet.</p><br>
<h3>Religious</h3><br>
<p>Saint Parthenios (1600–1657), Ecumenical Patriarch and religious martyr</p><br>
<p>Santa Thomais (910–1030), nun, philanthropist and healer</p><br>
<h3>Modern</h3><br>
<p>Theophilos Hatzimihail (c.1870–1934), Greek painter</p><br>
<p>Stratis Myrivilis (1892–1969), Greek writer</p><br>
<p>Odysseas Elytis (1911–1996), Greek poet, Nobel Laureate in 1979</p><br>
<p>Argyris Eftaliotis (1849–1923),(née Cleanthis Michailidis), Greek writer</p><br>
<p>Fotis Kontoglou (Aivali, origin of Mytilene) (1895–1965) Greek writer and painter.</p><br>
<p>Hermon di Giovanno (c. 1900–1968), Greek painter</p><br>
<p>Nikos Fermas (1905–1972), Greek actor</p><br>
<p>Giorgos Mouflouzelis (1912–1991), Greek composer - Rebetiko</p><br>
<p>Panagiotis Polychronis (1854–1941), Greek artist: photographer, lithographist and painter.</p><br>
<p>Leo Rapitis (1906–1957), Greek singer</p><br>
<p>Konstantinos Kenteris (born 1973), Greek athlete</p><br>
<p>Alexis Panselinos (1903–1984), Greek writer</p><br>
<p>Sophocles Vournazos (1853–1889), Greek philanthropist and founder of Mytilene&#39;s academic buildings.</p><br>
<p>Tériade (1889–1983), Greek art critic, patron, and publisher</p><br>
<p>Nicholas Kampas (1857–1932), Greek poet</p><br>
<p>Nicholas Athanasiadis (1904–1990), Greek theatre writer, literature writer, poet.</p><br>
<p>Ioannis Hatzidaniel (1850–1912), Greek painter and photographer.</p><br>
<p>Ioannis Giannelis, Republican Senator (Nea Dimokratia)</p><br>
<p>Solon Lekkas, Singer of traditional music from Asia Minor.</p><br>
<p>Giannis Bournellis, comedian, actor.</p><br>
<p>Christos Touramanis, particle physicist</p><br>
<p>Michalis Pavlis (born 1989), football player and coach</p><br>
<p>Hayreddin Barbarossa ( 1478-1546), Ottoman admiral</p><br>
<p>Ahmed Djemal Pasha (1872-1922), Ottoman military leader, perpetrator of the Armenian Genocide</p><br>
<p>Tamburi Ali Efendi ( 1836-1902 ), Turkishh Musician</p><br>
<p>Oruç Reis ( 1478-1518), Ottoman bey</p><br>
<h3>Fictional</h3><br>
<p>Lysimachus, in Shakespeare&#39;s Pericles, Prince of Tyre</p><br>
<h2>Twin cities</h2><br>
<p>Mytilene is twinned with:</p><br>
<p>Brod, Kosovo</p><br>
<p>Corfu, Greece</p><br>
<p>Kalamaria, Greece</p><br>
<p>Lamia, Greece</p><br>
<p>Paphos, Cyprus</p><br>
<p>Preveza, Greece</p><br>
<p>Portland, Maine, United States</p><br>
<p>Setouchi, Japan</p><br>
<p>Although all four fortifications constructed on Citadel Hill since 1749 are variously referred to as Fort George, only the third fort  was officially named Fort George, by General Orders of October 20, 1798, after Prince Edward&#39;s father, King George III. The first two and the fourth and current fort, were simply called the Halifax Citadel. The Citadel is the fortified summit of Citadel Hill, a National Historic Site of Canada in Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada. The hill was first fortified in 1749, the year the town of Halifax was founded. Those fortifications on the hill were successively rebuilt to defend the town from various enemies. A series of four different defensive fortifications have occupied the summit of Citadel Hill. Construction and levelling resulted in the summit of the hill being dropped by ten to twelve metres. Whilst never attacked, the Citadel was long the keystone to the defence of the strategically important Halifax Harbour and its Royal Navy Dockyard.</p><br>
<p>Today the fort is operated by Parks Canada as the Halifax Citadel National Historic Site of Canada and is restored to the Victorian period.</p><br>
<h2>The First Citadel</h2><br>
<h3>Father Le Loutre's War</h3><br>
<p>First established in 1749, as a counterbalance to the French stronghold of Louisbourg, which the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748) returned to France, Halifax played a pivotal role over the next decade in the Anglo-French rivalry in the region. The various fortifications at Halifax were to protect the Protestant settlers against raids by the French, Acadians, and Wabanaki Confederacy (primarily the Mikmaq) in a conflict known to some historians as Father Le Loutres War. The war began shortly after Edward Cornwallis arrived on June 21, 1749 to establish Halifax with 13 transports and a sloop of war carrying 1,176 settlers and their families. The Mikmaq felt that the British settlement at Halifax violated earlier treaties which were signed after Father Rales War in 1726. On 11 September 1749, Cornwallis wrote to the Board of Trade:</p><br>
<p>The first fort was simply a small redoubt which stood near the summit (at a spot just east of the south ravelin of the present citadel) with a flagstaff and guardhouse. It was part of the western perimeter wall for the old city which was protected by five stockaded forts. The others were Horsemans Fort, Cornwallis Fort, Fort Lutrell and Grenadier Fort. (The British built Fort Charlotte - named after King George&#39;s wife Charlotte - on Georges Island the following year in 1750.)</p><br>
<p>The fortified city walls guarded by five stockaded forts to protect against Mi&#39;kmaq, Acadian, and French attacks was the centre of a network of forts Cornwallis built to protect settlements including Bedford (Fort Sackville) (1749), Dartmouth (1750), Lunenburg (1753) and Lawrencetown (1754).</p><br>
<p>During Father Le Loutres War, the soldiers guarding Halifax were in a constant state of alert. The Mikmaq and Acadians raided the capital region (Halifax and Dartmouth) 12 times. The worst of these raids was the Dartmouth Massacre (1751). Four of these raids were against Halifax. The first raid was in July 1750: in the woods on peninsular Halifax, the Mikmaq scalped Cornwallis gardener, his son, and four others. They buried the son, left the gardener&#39;s body exposed, and carried off the other four bodies.</p><br>
<p>In 1751, there were two attacks on blockhouses surrounding Halifax. Mi&#39;kmaq attacked the North Blockhouse (located at the north end of Joseph Howe Drive) and killed the men on guard. They also attacked near the South Blockhouse (located at the south end of Joseph Howe Drive), at a saw-mill on a stream flowing out of Chocolate Lake into the Northwest Arm. They killed two men. ()</p><br>
<p>In 1753, when Lawrence became governor, the Mikmaq attacked again upon the sawmills near the South Blockhouse on the Northwest Arm, where they killed three British. The Mikmaq made three attempts to retrieve the bodies for their scalps.</p><br>
<p>Prominent Halifax business person Michael Francklin was captured by a Mi&#39;kmaw raiding party in 1754 and held captive for three months.</p><br>
<h3>The Seven Years War</h3><br>
<p>The stockaded forts were also instrumental to the British during the French and Indian War (the North American theatre of the Seven Years War). The Fort was used to help faciltate the Expulsion of the Acadians, many Acadians being imprisoned on Georges Island in Halifax Harbour. During the war, the Mikmaq and Acadians resisted the British throughout the province. On 2 April 1756, Mikmaq received payment from the Governor of Quebec for 12 British scalps taken at Halifax. Acadian Pierre Gautier, son of Joseph-Nicolas Gautier, led Mi’kmaq warriors from Louisbourg on three raids against Halifax in 1757. In each raid, Gautier took prisoners or scalps or both. The last raid happened in September and Gautier went with four Mi’kmaq and killed and scalped two British men at the foot of Citadel Hill. In July 1759, Mikmaq and Acadians killed five British in Dartmouth, opposite McNabbs Island. There were also numerous raids against the British in the province such as the Raid on Lunenburg (1756).</p><br>
<h2>The Second Citadel</h2><br>
<h3>American Revolution</h3><br>
<p>The first major permanent fortification appeared on Citadel Hill in the American Revolution. The possibility of attack during the Revolution required a larger fortification to protect the city from an American or French attack. Built in 1776, the new fort on Citadel Hill was composed of multiple lines of overlapping earthen redans backing a large outer palisade wall. At the center was a three-story octagonal blockhouse mounting a fourteen-gun battery and accommodating 100 troops. These works required that the hill be cut down by 40 feet. The entire fortress mounted 72 guns. Citadel Hill and the associated harbour defence fortifications afforded the Royal Navy the most secure and strategic base in eastern North America from its Halifax Dockyard commanding the Great Circle Route to western Europe and gave Halifax the nickname "Warden of The North". The massive British military presence in Halifax focused through Citadel Hill and the Royal Navy&#39;s dockyard is thought to be one of the main reasons that Nova Scotia—the fourteenth British colony—remained loyal to the Crown throughout and after the American Revolutionary War.</p><br>
<p>Neither French nor American forces attacked Citadel Hill during the American Revolution. However, the garrison remained on guard because there were numerous American privateer raids on villages around the province (e.g., Raid on Lunenburg (1782)), as well as naval battles just off shore, such as the Naval battle off Halifax. By 1784 the works were reported in ruins except for the blockhouse.</p><br>
<h2>The Third Citadel</h2><br>
<p>Although all four fortifications constructed on Citadel Hill since 1749 are variously referred to as Fort George, this third Citadel is the only one officially named Fort George, by General Orders of October 20, 1798, after King George III.</p><br>
<h3>French Revolutionary Wars</h3><br>
<p>The French Revolutionary Wars that began in 1793 raised a new threat to Halifax. A new citadel was designed in 1794 and was completed by 1800. Much of the work was inspired by Prince Edward, Duke of Kent, the fourth son of King George III and the father of Queen Victoria, who was posted to Halifax as Commander-in-chief from 1794 to 1800. The top of the hill was leveled and lowered a further 15 feet to accommodate a larger fortress on the summit. It resembled the outline of the final Citadel, comprising four bastions surrounding a central barracks and magazine, but used mainly earthwork walls. One bastion was constructed with labour from Jamaican Maroons.</p><br>
<h3>Town clock</h3><br>
<p>Prince Edward, Duke of Kent commissioned a clock tower in 1800 prior to his return to England. The Town Clock opened on October 20, 1803, at a location on the east slope of Citadel Hill on Barrack (now Brunswick) Street and has kept time for the community ever since.</p><br>
<h3>The War of 1812</h3><br>
<p>The Third citadel received hasty repairs and a new magazine during the War of 1812 in case of an American raid but a new fortification was not constructed as naval superiority provided by the British Royal Navy precluded any chance of an American siege.</p><br>
<p>By 1825 all the works except the powder magazine, were in ruins,</p><br>
<h2>The Fourth Citadel</h2><br>
<p>The current star-shaped fortress, or citadel, was completed in 1856, during the Victorian Era, following twenty-eight years of construction. This massive masonry-construction fort was designed to repel a land-based attack by United States forces and was inspired by the designs of Louis XIV&#39;s commissary of fortifications Sébastien Le Prestre, Seigneur de Vauban &ndash; a star-shaped hillock citadel with internal courtyard and clear harbour view from armoured ramparts. Between 1820 and 1831 the British had constructed a similar albeit larger citadel in Quebec City known as the Citadel of Quebec.</p><br>
<h3>Centrepiece of the Halifax Defence Complex</h3><br>
<p>The Halifax Citadel and its predecessors were the focal point of the British military&#39;s "Halifax Defence Complex" which included (at various years):</p><br>
<p>Fort Needham</p><br>
<p>HMC Dockyard</p><br>
<p>Fort Massey</p><br>
<p>Fort Ogilvie</p><br>
<p>Prince of Wales Tower</p><br>
<p>Connaught Battery</p><br>
<p>York Redoubt</p><br>
<p>Practice Battery</p><br>
<p>Sandwich Point</p><br>
<p>Camperdown</p><br>
<p>Fort Chebucto</p><br>
<p>Fort Charlotte on George&#39;s Island</p><br>
<p>Fort Clarence</p><br>
<p>Devil&#39;s Battery / Hartlen Point</p><br>
<p>Five forts on McNabs Island:</p><br>
<p>Fort Ives</p><br>
<p>Fort Hugonin</p><br>
<p>Sherbrooke Tower</p><br>
<p>Strawberry Hill</p><br>
<p>Fort McNab</p><br>
<p>The Halifax Citadel was constructed to defend against smoothbore weaponry; it became obsolete following the introduction of more powerful rifled guns in the 1860s. British forces upgraded Fort Georges armaments to permit it to defend the harbour as well as land approaches, using heavier and more accurate long-range artillery. The Citadels two large ammunition magazines also served as the central explosive store for Halifax defences, making Citadel Hill, according to the historian and novelist Thomas Head Raddall, "like Vesuvius over Pompeii, a smiling monster with havoc in its belly". By the end of the 19th century, the role of the Citadel in the defence of Halifax Harbour evolved to become a command centre for other, more distant harbour defensive works, as well as providing barrack accommodations.</p><br>
<h3>American Civil War</h3><br>
<p>The soldiers at the Halifax Citadel were on alert when Nova Scotia became the site of two international incidents during the American Civil War: the Chesapeake Affair and the escape from Halifax Harbour of Confederate John Taylor Wood on the CSS Tallahassee.</p><br>
<h3>78th (Highlanders) Regiment of Foot</h3><br>
<p>The renowned 78th (Highlanders) Regiment of Foot were stationed at Halifax for almost three years (1869-1871). The regiment arrived in Halifax on the afternoon of May 14 aboard the troopship. A total of 765 men disembarked in full dress uniform. The Regiment was divided into two depots and eight service companies, consisting in all of 34 officers, 49 sergeants, 21 drummers, 6 pipers, and 600 rank and file.</p><br>
<p>For two years, the regiment spent its time billeted at the Halifax Citadel and at Wellington Barracks. The latter is now known as Stadacona and is part of Canadian Forces Base Halifax. Each summer, men from the regiment camped at Bedford to practice musketry at the military range.</p><br>
<p>On their departure in 1871, a farewell ball complete with a musical tribute was composed in their honour. It was hosted by the famous brewmaster and then Grandmaster of the Mason Lodge of Nova Scotia and mayor of Halifax, Alexander Keith.</p><br>
<p>On November 25, the regiment set sail for Ireland on board the troopship Orontes. With them went 17 young Nova Scotian women who had married members of the regiment.</p><br>
<p>The Halifax Citadel has a living history program featuring animators portraying life in the fort where soldiers of the 78th Highland Regiment and the 78th Highlanders (Halifax Citadel) Pipe Band who re-enact life in 1869.</p><br>
<h3>First and Second World Wars</h3><br>
<p>Although never attacked, Citadel Hill&#39;s various fortifications continued to be garrisoned by the British Army until 1906 and afterward by the Canadian Army throughout the First World War.</p><br>
<p>When the Great War began in 1914, there was widespread suspicion in Canada that immigrants from enemy countries might be disloyal. In response, the federal government passed regulations allowing it to monitor and intern anyone who had not become naturalized British subjects. These people were labelled “enemy aliens.” In total 8,579 men were prisoners of war in 24 camps across the country.</p><br>
<p>There were three Internment camps in Nova Scotia: Amherst Internment Camp (April 1915 to September 1919); one on Melville Island in the Northwest Arm of Halifax Harbour and in Citadel Hill (Fort George) (September 1914 to October 1918). Unlike the rest of Canada, where internees were mostly of Eastern European origin, the internees in Nova Scotia were mainly German reservists.</p><br>
<p>Fort Georges final military role was to provide temporary barracks, signaling and the central coordinating point for the citys anti-aircraft defences during the Second World War.</p><br>
<h3>Preservation</h3><br>
<p>In 1935, the hill and fortifications were designated a National Historic Site and received some stabilization as a works project during the Depression. However, the fort was not restored and began to decay after the end of the Second World War. In the late 1940s, Halifax downtown business interests advocated demolishing the fort and leveling Citadel Hill to provide parking and encourage development. However, recognition of the forts historical significance and tourism potential led to the forts preservation and gradual restoration. Research by historian Harry Piers published in his final book in 1947 played a key role in making the case and providing resources to restore the Citadel. In 1956, the partially restored fort opened as a historic site and home to the Halifax Army museum and, in the years before they constructed their own museums, as home to the Nova Scotia Museum and the Maritime Museum of the Atlantic. The Citadel was finally fully restored to its 1869 appearance in the 1990s by Parks Canada.</p><br>
<h2>Present day</h2><br>
<p>Today the site is under the responsibility of Parks Canada. The Citadel has been restored to the mid-Victorian period. The fort is amongst the most visited National Historic Sites in Atlantic Canada.</p><br>
<p>The grounds of the Halifax Citadel are open year round, and from spring to fall has a living history program featuring animators portraying the 78th Highland Regiment, (stationed at Halifax between 1869 and 1871), the 78th Highlanders (Halifax Citadel) Pipe Band, the Third Brigade of the Royal Artillery, soldiers wives, and civilian tradespersons. Parks Canada also hosts several re-enactment events each year by volunteers of the and the.</p><br>
<p>There are guided and self-guided tours available as well as audio-visual presentations and exhibits which serve to communicate the Citadels role in shaping Halifaxs and North America&#39;s history.</p><br>
<p>One of the most enduring and recognized symbols of the Halifax Citadel&#39;s role in shaping Halifax is the year-round daily ceremonial firing of the noon gun. The artillery is also used for formal occasions such as 21-gun salutes.</p><br>
<p>The "Army Museum", located in the Citadels Cavalier Block, displays a rare collection of weapons, medals, and uniforms exploring Nova Scotias army history. It is an independent non-profit museum but works in close partnership with the Citadel staff of Parks Canada.</p><br>
<p>In July 2006, Halifax Citadel celebrated the 100th anniversary of the withdrawal of the last British military forces from Canada. The Citadel hosted over 1,000 re-enactors from around the world.</p><br>
<p>Approaching the Christmas season, Citadel Hill annually hosts a "Victorian Christmas". Visitors are treated to crafts, carolers, and games.</p><br>
<h3>Army Museum Gallery</h3><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>The Halifax Citadels were an American Hockey League team that played from 1988 - 93 at the Halifax Metro Centre, just below Citadel Hill.</p><br>
<p>The Songhua River  is one of the primary rivers of China, and the largest tributary of the Amur River. It flows about 1,434 km from the Changbai Mountains on the China–North Korea border through China&#39;s northeastern Jilin and Heilongjiang provinces. The river drains 557,180 km&sup2; of land, and has an annual discharge of 2,463 m3/s.</p><br>
<p>The extreme flatness of the Northeast China Plain has caused the river to meander widely over time. The result of the meandering is that the river is surrounded by a wide plain that is filled with swirls and curves, showing paths the river once took.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>As the Second Songhua River, it joins the Amur at Tongjiang, Heilongjiang. It is then interrupted by the Baishan, Hongshi and Fengman dams, which are used for hydroelectricity production. Fengman Dam forms a lake that stretches 62 km upstream. Below the dam, the Second Songhua flows northwest until its largest tributary, the Nen River, joins it near Daan and creates the Songhua. The Nen River drains the Songnen Plain. The river travels east until it joins the Hulan River near Harbin. Nearby it is also joined by the Ashi, which gave its name to the Jurchen Jin Dynasty (12th–13th century). Then it passes between the northern end of the eastern Manchurian mountain system and the Lesser Xingan Range. The river then flows into the Amur River (Heilong Jiang) valley. The river freezes from late November until March. It has its highest flows when the mountain snow melts during the spring thaw. The river is navigable up to Harbin by medium-sized ships. Smaller craft can navigate the Songhua up to Jilin and the Nen River up to Qiqihar.</p><br>
<p>Cities along the river include:</p><br>
<p>Harbin</p><br>
<p>Jiamusi</p><br>
<p>Jilin</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>In November 2005, the river was contaminated with benzene, leading to a shutdown of Harbins water supply. The spill stretched 80 km and eventually reached the Amur (Heilong) River on the China–Russia border. On July 28, 2010, several thousand barrels were washed away by floods from two chemical plants in Chinas Jilin City. Some of them contained 170 kg of explosive material like trimethylsilyl chloride and hexamethyldisiloxane. In 2016, the part near the city of Jilin was affected by a minor flood.</p><br>
<p>Bear Island  is the southernmost island of the Norwegian Svalbard archipelago. The island is located in the western part of the Barents Sea, approximately halfway between Spitsbergen and the North Cape.</p><br>
<p>Bear Island was discovered by the Dutch explorers Willem Barents and Jacob van Heemskerk on 10 June 1596. It was named after a polar bear that was seen swimming nearby. The island was considered terra nullius until the Spitsbergen Treaty of 1920 placed it under Norwegian sovereignty.</p><br>
<p>Despite its remote location and barren nature, the island has seen commercial activities in past centuries, such as coal mining, fishing and whaling. However, no settlements have lasted more than a few years, and Bear Island is now uninhabited except for personnel working at the island&#39;s meteorological station Herwighamna. Along with the adjacent waters, it was declared a nature reserve in 2002.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Seafarers of the Viking era may have known Bear Island, but the documented history begins in 1596, when Willem Barents sighted the island on his third expedition. He named this island "Vogel Eylandt", "Bird Island" in English. Steven Bennet conducted further exploration in 1603 and 1604 and noted the then rich population of walrus. Starting in the early 17th century, the island was used mainly as a base for the hunting of walrus and other species of seals. Also, the eggs of seabirds were harvested from the large bird colonies through 1971.</p><br>
<p>The Muscovy Company claimed Bear Island for the English Crown in 1609, but it abandoned the site when walrus-hunting declined. A Russian settlement existed in the 18th century and its remains were later used as a basis for territorial claims by Imperial Russia in 1899 and again by the Soviet Union in 1947.</p><br>
<p>Bear Island has never been extensively settled. The remnants of a whaling station from the early 20th century can be seen at Kvalrossbukta ("walrus bay") in the southeast. From 1916 through 1925, coal was mined at a small settlement named Tunheim on the northeastern coast, but then the mining was given up as unprofitable. Due to the cold climate, the remains of the settlement, including a half-destroyed jetty and a steam locomotive, are relatively well-preserved.</p><br>
<p>The strategic value of Bear Island was recognised in the late 19th century, when Imperial Russia and Imperial Germany demonstrated their interests in the Barents Sea. The German journalist and adventurer Theodor Lerner visited the island in 1898 and 1899 and claimed rights of ownership. In 1899, the German fishery association Deutsche Seefischerei-Verein (DSV) started investigations of whaling and fishery in the Barents Sea. The DSV was secretly in contact with the German naval command and considered the possibility of an occupation of Bear Island. In reaction to these advances, the Russian Navy sent out the protected cruiser to investigate, and the Russians hoisted their flag over Bear Island on July 21, 1899. Although Lerner protested the action, no violence occurred and the matter was settled diplomatically with no definitive claims of sovereignty over Bear Island by any nation.</p><br>
<p>The whole island was privately owned by the coal mining company of Bjørnøen AS from 1918 to 1932, when the Norwegian state took over the shares. Bjørnøen AS now exists as a state-owned company, and it is jointly managed with Kings Bay AS, the company that runs the operations of Ny-Ålesund on Spitsbergen. A Norwegian radio station (Bjørnøya Radio, callsign: LJB) was established in Herwighamna on the northern coast in 1919. It was later extended to include a meteorological station.</p><br>
<p>Since the shipping routes from the Atlantic Ocean to and the ports of the arctic White Sea pass through the Barents Sea, the waters near Bear Island were of some strategic importance during World War II as well during as the Cold War. Although Svalbard was not occupied by Germany, the Kriegsmarine built several weather stations there.</p><br>
<p>An automated radio station was deployed on Bjørnøya in 1941. German forces attacked several arctic convoys with military supplies bound for the Soviet Union in the waters surrounding Bear Island. They inflicted heavy losses upon the Convoy PQ-17 of June/July 1942, but they were ineffective in the Battle of the Barents Sea on New Year&#39;s Eve 1942. The waters southeast of Bear Island were the scene of more naval battles in 1943.</p><br>
<p>In November 1944, the Soviet Union proposed to annul the Svalbard Treaty with the intention of gaining sovereignty over Bear Island. Negotiations with Trygve Lie of the Norwegian government-in-exile did not led to an agreement by the end of World War II, and the Soviet proposals were never carried out. The Soviet Union (and later, Russia) maintained some presence on Spitsbergen, however.</p><br>
<p>In 2002 a nature reserve was established that covers all of the island, except 1.2 km&sup2; around the meteorological station. The reserve also includes the adjacent waters of a four nautical mile radius (7.4 km) from the coast.</p><br>
<p>In 2008, the decision was made to extend the reserve to a radius of 12 nmi from the coast covering 177 km&sup2; on land and 2,805 km&sup2; of sea area.</p><br>
<p>Today, the island&#39;s only inhabitants are the nine or so members of the staff of the Norwegian meteorological station and radio station at Herwighamna.</p><br>
<p>This station carries out meteorological observations and provides logistic and telecommunication services, including a radio watch on the HF channels 2182/2168 and the VHF channels 16/12. Weather forecasts are transmitted from the station twice daily, announced on HF 2182/VHF 16.</p><br>
<p>The station also has landing platforms for use by helicopters of the Norwegian Coast Guard, the Norwegian 330 Squadron, and the Governor of Svalbard. The Norwegian Polar Institute conducts annual expeditions to Bear Island, mostly concerned with ornithological research. Several other research projects, mostly pertaining to geography and climatology, are carried out less regularly. There are very few opportunities for individual travel to Bjørnøya.</p><br>
<h2>Hydrography, geography and climate</h2><br>
<p>Agencies of the Norwegian government have conducted hydrographic surveys of the waters of Svalbard throughout the 20th century, namely "Norges Svalbard- og Ishavsundersøkelser" since 1928, then its successor the Norwegian Polar Institute beginning in 1948, and the Norwegian Hydrographic Service beginning in 1984. Land surveying and mapping are the responsibilities of the Polar Institute.</p><br>
<p>Bear Island lies about 235 km south of mainland Spitsbergen and 397 km NNW of Ingøy in mainland Norway. In the westernmost part of the Barents Sea on Spitsbergen Bank, which extends southward from Spitsbergen and Edgeøya, forming a part of the continental shelf. Water depths near the island and to the north and east do not much exceed 100 m, but become much greater to the south, and especially some thirty nautical miles to the west, where the continental shelf slopes into the deep water of the Norwegian Sea and Greenland Sea.</p><br>
<p>The island&#39;s outline is an approximate triangle pointing south with a greatest north-south extension of 20 km and a greatest east-west extension of 15.5 km. Its surface area is 178 km&sup2;. The southern part of Bjørnøya is mountainous, the highest top being Miseryfjellet on the southeast coast at about 536 m above sea level. Other notable mountains are Antarcticfjellet in the southeast, and Fuglefjellet, Hambergfjellet, and Alfredfjellet in the southwest. The northern part of the island forms a lowland plain that covers some two thirds of the surface area. The lowland is strewn with shallow freshwater lakes that cover about 19 km&sup2; in all. Several streams flow into the ocean, often via waterfalls along the steeper parts of the coast. There are known glaciers on Bear Island.</p><br>
<p>Apart from a few sandy beaches, the coast is mostly steep, with high cliffs and notable signs of erosion such as caverns and isolated rock pillars. A number of anchorages and landing points exist, as well as a small harbor at Herwighamna on the north coast. However, none of these is safe in all weather conditions, and a ship mooring anywhere on Bear Island must therefore be prepared to depart at any time.</p><br>
<p>A branch of the North Atlantic current carries warm water to Svalbard, creating a climate much warmer than that of other regions at similar latitude. Bear Island&#39;s climate is maritime-polar with relatively mild temperatures during the winter. January is the coldest month, with a mean temperature of −8.1°C (17.4°F) (base period 1961–1990). July and August are the warmest months, with mean temperatures of 4.4 °C (39.9 °F). Temperatures have tended to be warmer the latest decades. There is not much precipitation, with an average of 371 mm per year in the northern lowland area. The weather can be quite stable during the summer months, although foggy conditions are common, occurring during 20% of all days in July. Fog develops when the warm air of the Atlantic Ocean, fram farther south, passes over cold water. The average monthly precipitation is lowest in May, and highest in September and October.</p><br>
<p>Because Bear Island lies on a boundary between cold water of polar origin and warmer Atlantic water, water temperatures within a few dozen nautical miles of the island are quite variable, sometimes reaching 10 °C (50 °F) in summer. During the winter fast ice develops on the coast, but it is rare on the open sea around Bear Island. The Barents Sea carries pack ice to Bjørnøya every winter, sometimes as early as October, but a significant amount of ice is not common before February.</p><br>
<p>The polar night lasts from about November 8th through February 3rd, and the period of midnight sun from about May 2nd through August 11th. With just 595 hours of bright sunshine per year, Bear Island has the lowest average yearly sunshine in Europe.</p><br>
<h2>Flora and fauna</h2><br>
<p>Bear Island was the site of a pioneering ecological study by Victor Summerhayes and Charles Elton in the early 1920s, which produced one of the first food web diagrams. There is a little plant growth, consisting mostly of moss and some scurvy grass, but no trees.</p><br>
<p>The only indigenous land mammals are a few Arctic foxes. Despite its name, Bear Island is not a permanent residence of polar bears, although many arrive with the expanding pack ice in the winter. Occasionally, a bear will stay behind when the ice retreats in spring and remain through the summer months. Moreover, the sub-population of Ursus maritimus polar bears found here is a genetically distinct set of polar bears associated with the Barents Sea region. Ringed seal and bearded seal, prey of the polar bear, live in the waters near Bjørnøya, but the formerly common walruses have nowadays become guests. Bear Island&#39;s freshwater lakes are the home of some seabirds like the Arctic char.</p><br>
<h3>Birds</h3><br>
<p>The only land birds are snow buntings and rock ptarmigans, but the island is rich in seabirds that nest on the southern cliffs. Other species visit the island during their seasonal migration between Svalbard&#39;s northern islands and mainland Europe.</p><br>
<p>Bear island has been identified as an Important Bird Area (IBA) by BirdLife International. It supports breeding populations of northern fulmars (50,000&ndash;60,000 pairs), purple sandpipers, red phalaropes (10 pairs), glaucous gulls (2000 pairs), black-legged kittiwakes (100,000 pairs), little auks (10,000&ndash;100,000 pairs), common guillemots (50,000 pairs), thick-billed guillemots (190,000 individuals) and black guillemots (1000 pairs). It also supports migratory populations of pink-footed geese (30,000 individuals), barnacle geese and long-tailed ducks.</p><br>
<h2>Environmental concerns</h2><br>
<p>Although there are currently no industrial activities on Bjørnøya or in its immediate vicinity, pollution by toxic and radioactive substances remains a threat to the island&#39;s virtually untouched nature. Exploration in the Barents sea and the recent development of the Snøhvit gas field off the northern coast of Norway shows that the ecologically sensitive polar and subpolar sea areas of the Norwegian and Barents Sea have come into the focus of the petrol and gas industry. The environmental organisation Bellona has criticised the Norwegian government for licensing these activities without sufficient studies of their ecological impact. Organic toxins, specifically PCBs, have been found in high concentrations in biological samples from Bear Island, especially in Arctic char of the freshwater lake Ellasjøen. The Soviet nuclear submarine Komsomolets sank on April 7, 1989 some 100 nmi southwest of Bear Island. Leakage of radioactive material from the reactor and nuclear warheads currently poses a problem, and severe pollution of the surrounding waters remains possible.</p><br>
<h2>Culture</h2><br>
<h3>Associations</h3><br>
<p>The island has a club for nude dippers ("Bjørnøya nakenbadeforening"), with over 3,000 members.</p><br>
<h3>Pastime</h3><br>
<p>Surfing has been documented in the movie Bjørnøya – følg drømmen.</p><br>
<p>Timberline Lodge is a mountain lodge on the south side of Mount Hood in Clackamas County, Oregon, about 60 mi east of Portland. Constructed from 1936 to 1938 by the Works Progress Administration, it was built and furnished by local artisans during the Great Depression. Timberline Lodge was dedicated September 28, 1937, by President Franklin D. Roosevelt.</p><br>
<p>The National Historic Landmark sits at an elevation of 5,960 ft, within the Mount Hood National Forest and is accessible through the Mount Hood Scenic Byway. Publicly owned and privately operated, Timberline Lodge is a popular tourist attraction that draws two million visitors annually. It is notable in film for serving as the exterior of the Overlook Hotel in The Shining.</p><br>
<h2>Design and construction</h2><br>
<p>Timberline Lodge, a mountain lodge and resort hotel, is a four-story structure comprising approximately 40,000 square feet. The ground-level exterior walls are heavy rubble masonry, using boulders from the immediate area, and heavy timber is used from the first floor up. The central head house section is hexagonal and 60 feet in diameter, with a six-sided stone chimney stack 92 feet high and 14 feet in diameter. Each of the six fireplace openings—three on the ground floor, three on the first floor—is five feet wide and seven feet high. Two wings, running west and southeast, flank the head house. Oregon woods used throughout the building include cedar, Douglas fir, hemlock, western juniper and ponderosa pine.</p><br>
<p>The architect of record for Timberline Lodge is Gilbert Stanley Underwood, noted for the Ahwahnee Hotel and other lodges in the USA national park system. forest service engineer Ward Gano was structural designer.</p><br>
<p>Timberline Lodge was constructed between 1936 and 1938 as a Works Progress Administration project during the Great Depression. Eighty percent of the WPA&#39;s $695,730 total expenditure on building costs paid for labor. Skilled building trade workers received 90 cents an hour; unskilled laborers received 55 cents an hour. Some of the skilled stonemasons on the project were Italian immigrants who had worked on the Historic Columbia River Highway and other roads in Oregon. About 100 construction workers were on site at a given time, and lived at a nearby tent city. Jobs were rotated to provide work to as many of the unemployed as possible.</p><br>
<p>Materials costs were minimized by the skillful use of recycled materials. Women wove draperies, upholstery and bedspreads, and hooked rugs were made from strips of old Civilian Conservation Corps camp blankets. Discarded cedar utility poles became newel posts with their crowns hand-carved into birds, bears and seals. Fireplace screens were fashioned from tire chains. Andirons and other iron work was forged from old railroad tracks. WPA workers used large timbers and local stone from the site.</p><br>
<p>"All classes, from the most elementary hand labor, through the various degrees of skill to the technically trained were employed," reported the WPAs Federal Writers Project. "Pick and shovel wielders, stonecutters, plumbers, carpenters, steam-fitters, painters, wood-carvers, cabinet-makers, metal workers, leather-toolers, seamstresses, weavers, architects, authors, artists, actors, musicians, and landscape planners, each contributed to the project, and each, in his way, was conscious of the ideal toward which all bent their energies."</p><br>
<h3>Federal Art Project</h3><br>
<p>Federal Art Project contributions to the project were directed by Margery Hoffman Smith, Oregon Arts Project administrator, who created many designs for textiles and rugs. She designed the iconic "snow goose", the 750-pound bronze weather vane above the head house. Smith based the abstract forms incised into the lodge chimney on the art of the local Tenino people. Likely acquainted with William Gray Purcell, a fellow resident of Portland, Smith saw that the Prairie School aesthetic was carried through in tables, chairs, sectional sofas, columns, bedspreads, draperies, lampshades and pendant lighting fixtures. She commissioned murals, paintings and carvings from Oregon&#39;s WPA artists.</p><br>
<h2>Dedication</h2><br>
<p>quotationI am here to dedicate the Timberline Lodge and I do so in the words of the bronze tablet directly in front of me on the coping of this wonderful building:</p><br>
<p>During an inspection tour of government activities in the western USA, President Franklin D. Roosevelt dedicated Timberline Lodge on September 28, 1937. In his remarks, he commented on the reasons for the project:</p><br>
<p>This Timberline Lodge marks a venture that was made possible by WPA, emergency relief work, in order that we may test the workability of recreational facilities installed by the Government itself and operated under its complete control.</p><br>
<p>Here, to Mount Hood, will come thousands and thousands of visitors in the coming years. Looking east toward eastern Oregon with its great livestock raising areas, these visitors are going to visualize the relationship between the cattle ranches and the summer ranges in the forests. Looking westward and northward toward Portland and the Columbia River, with their great lumber and other wood using industries, they will understand the part which National Forest timber will play in the support of this important element of northwestern prosperity.</p><br>
<p>Those who will follow us to Timberline Lodge on their holidays and vacations will represent the enjoyment of new opportunities for play in every season of the year. I mention specially every season of the year because we, as a nation, I think, are coming to realize that the summer is not the only time for play. I look forward to the day when many, many people from this region of the Nation are going to come here for skiing and tobogganing and various other forms of winter sports."</p><br>
<p>FDR and Eleanor Roosevelt enjoyed a celebratory luncheon that included salmon and huckleberry pie. In her My Day column, Mrs. Roosevelt praised the lodge&#39;s architectural features: "It is built exclusively of native products and by WPA labor. The interesting central fire place with its many openings is a feature I have seen in no other building of its kind and no where have I seen such big timbers used. All the furniture, all the hangings, all the iron work as well, were made by WPA workers. Here is a group of workers who have the makings of a handcraft organization and I hope their work will be appreciated. Mr. Griffith, the state WPA administrator, must be happy over the work done here."</p><br>
<p>Most work was complete at the time of the dedication. After some interior details were finished, the lodge opened to the public February 4, 1938.</p><br>
<h2>Operation</h2><br>
<p>Roosevelt&#39;s vision of winter sports at Timberline Lodge took hesitant steps the following year. A portable rope tow was installed, and construction began on the Magic Mile chairlift, which opened November 1939. Today, the lodge and its grounds are host to a ski resort also known as Timberline Lodge. It has the longest skiing season in the USA, and is open for skiers and snowboarders every month of the year. Activities include skiing, snowboarding, walking, hiking and climbing.</p><br>
<h3>Decline and recovery</h3><br>
<p>Lifestyles Northwest published a story about the history of Timberline Lodge in its February 2005 issue, based heavily on interviews with the family who have operated the lodge for fifty years. The story noted that in the lodge&#39;s early years, it had had four different operators, none of which was willing or able to maintain it. By 1955 Timberline Lodge was closed and in disrepair.</p><br>
<p>Richard Kohnstamm, the patriarch of the family that currently operates it, remembered those difficulties as being due to financing problems arising from the fact that the government owned it. Kohnstamm decided to maintain the place as if he owned it himself; he lost money during his first five years of operation, but his timing turned out to be fortuitous, since he began operating it only a few years before skiing started exploding in popularity in the late 1950s. That popularity helped the family generate a profit starting in 1960. Kohnstamm, "the man who saved Timberline", died at the age of 80 on April 21, 2006. Kohnstamm&#39;s son Jeff is now the Area Operator of Timberline Lodge.</p><br>
<h3>Filming location</h3><br>
<p>Timberline Lodge was used as a filming location for the 1941 musical short, Jingle Belles. Feature films shot at or around Timberline Lodge include Bend of the River (1952), All the Young Men (1960), the 1973 version of Lost Horizon, and Hear No Evil (1993). Most notably, exterior shots of Timberline Lodge were used in The Shining (1980), Stanley Kubricks film adaptation of the Stephen King novel set at the fictional Overlook Hotel. Director Boris Sagal was killed in an accident on the third day of filming the NBC-TV miniseries World War III (1982), when he walked into the tail rotor blades of a helicopter in Timberline Lodges parking lot. Most recently, Timberline Lodge was a location for the 2014 feature film, Wild.</p><br>
<p>Paros  is a Greek island in the central Aegean Sea. One of the Cyclades island group, it lies to the west of Naxos, from which it is separated by a channel about 8 km wide. It lies approximately 150 km south-east of Piraeus. The Municipality of Paros includes numerous uninhabited offshore islets totaling 196.308 km² of land. Its nearest neighbor is the municipality of Antiparos, which lies to its southwest.</p><br>
<p>Historically, Paros was known for its fine white marble, which gave rise to the term "Parian" to describe marble or china of similar qualities. Today, abandoned marble quarries and mines can be found on the island, but Paros is primarily known as a popular tourist spot.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Paros geographic co-ordinates are 37° N. lat, and 25° 10 E. long. The area is 165 km&sup2;. Its greatest length from N.E. to S.W. is 21 km, and its greatest breadth 15 km. The island is of a round, plump-pear shape, formed by a single mountain (724 m) sloping evenly down on all sides to a maritime plain, which is broadest on the north-east and south-west sides. The island is composed of marble, though gneiss and mica-schist are to be found in a few places. To the west of Paros lies its smaller sister island Antiparos. At its narrowest, the channel between the two islands is less than 2 km wide. A car-carrying shuttle-ferry operates all day (to and from Pounda, 5 km south of Parikia). In addition a dozen smaller islets surround Paros.</p><br>
<p>Paros has numerous beaches including Chrissí Aktí (Golden Beach, Greece) near Drios on the east coast, at Pounda, Logaras, Piso Livadi, Naousa Bay, Parikia and Agia Irini. The constant strong wind in the strait between Paros and Naxos makes it a favoured windsurfing location.</p><br>
<h3>Islands</h3><br>
<p>Gaiduronisi – north of Xifara</p><br>
<p>Portes Island – west of the town of Paros</p><br>
<p>Tigani Island – southwest of Paros</p><br>
<p>Drionisi – southeast of Paros</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Antiquity</h3><br>
<p>The story that Paros of Parrhasia colonized the island with Arcadians is an etymological fiction of the type that abounds in Greek legend. Ancient names of the island are said to have been Plateia (or Pactia), Demetrias, Strongyli (meaning round, due to the round shape of the island), Hyria, Hyleessa, Minoa and Cabarnis.</p><br>
<p>The island later received from Athens a colony of Ionians under whom it attained a high degree of prosperity. It sent out colonies to Thasos and Parium on the Hellespont. In the former colony, which was planted in the 15th or 18th Olympiad, the poet Archilochus, a native of Paros, is said to have taken part. As late as 385 BC the Parians, in conjunction with Dionysius of Syracuse, founded a colony on the Illyrian island of Pharos (Hvar).</p><br>
<p>Shortly before the Persian War, Paros seems to have been a dependency of Naxos. In the first Greco-Persian War (490 BC), Paros sided with the Persians and sent a trireme to Marathon to support them. In retaliation, the capital was besieged by an Athenian fleet under Miltiades, who demanded a fine of 100 talents. But the town offered a vigorous resistance, and the Athenians were obliged to sail away after a siege of 26 days, during which they had wasted the island. It was at a temple of Demeter Thesmophoros in Paros that Miltiades received the wound from which he died. By means of an inscription, Ross was able to identify the site of the temple; it lies, as Herodotus suggests, on a low hill beyond the boundary of the town.</p><br>
<p>Paros also sided with shahanshah Xerxes I of Persia against Greece in the second Greco-Persian War (480–479 BC), but, after the battle of Artemisium, the Parian contingent remained inactive at Kythnos as they watched the progression of events. For their support of the Persians, the islanders were later punished by the Athenian war leader Themistocles, who exacted a heavy fine.</p><br>
<p>Under the Delian League, the Athenian-dominated naval confederacy (477–404 BC), Paros paid the highest tribute of the island members: 30 talents annually, according to the estimate of Olympiodorus (429 BC). This implies that Paros was one of the wealthiest islands in the Aegean. Little is known about the constitution of Paros, but inscriptions seem to show that it was modeled on the Athenian democracy, with a boule (senate) at the head of affairs. In 410 BC, Athenian general Theramenes discovered that Paros was governed by an oligarchy; he deposed the oligarchy and restored the democracy. Paros was included in the second Athenian confederacy (the Second Athenian Empire 378–355 BC). In c. 357 BC, along with Chios, it severed its connection with Athens.</p><br>
<p>From the inscription of Adule, it is understood that the Cyclades, which are presumed to include Paros, were subjected to the Ptolemies, the Hellenistic dynasty (305–30 BC) that ruled Egypt. Paros then became part of the Roman Empire and later of the Byzantine Empire, its Greek-speaking successor state.</p><br>
<h3>Crusades</h3><br>
<p>In 1204, the soldiers of the Fourth Crusade seized Constantinople and overthrew the Byzantine Empire. Although a residual Byzantine state known as the Empire of Nicaea survived the Crusader onslaught and eventually recovered Constantinople (1261), many of the original Byzantine territories, including Paros, were lost permanently to the crusading powers. Paros became subject to the Duchy of the Archipelago, a fiefdom made up of various Aegean islands ruled by a Venetian duke as nominal vassal of a succession of crusader states. In practice, however, the duchy was always a client state of the Republic of Venice.</p><br>
<h3>Ottoman Era and independence</h3><br>
<p>In 1537, Paros was conquered by the Ottoman Turks and remained under the Ottoman Empire until the Greek War of Independence (1821–1829). During the Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774) in 1770–1775 Naoussa Bay was the home base for the Russian Archipelago Squadron of Count Alexey Orlov. Under the Treaty of Constantinople (1832), Paros became part of the newly independent Kingdom of Greece, the first time the Parians had been ruled by fellow Greeks for over six centuries. At this time, Paros became the home of a heroine of the nationalist movement, Manto Mavrogenous, who had both financed and they fought in the war for independence. Her house, near Ekatontapiliani church, is today a historical monument.</p><br>
<p>On 26 September 2000 the ferry MS Express Samina collided with the Portes islets off the bay of Parikia, killing 82 of those on board.</p><br>
<h2>Parikia</h2><br>
<p>The capital, Parikia, situated on a bay on the north-west side of the island, occupies the site of the ancient capital Paros. Parikía harbour is a major hub for Aegean islands ferries and catamarans, with several sailings each day for Piraeus, the port of Athens, Heraklion, the capital of Crete, and other islands such as Naxos, Ios, Santorini, and Mykonos.</p><br>
<p>In Parikia town, houses are built and decorated in the traditional Cycladic style, with flat roofs, whitewash walls and blue-painted doors and window frames and shutters. Shadowed by luxuriant vines, and surrounded by gardens of oranges and pomegranates, the houses give the town a picturesque aspect. Above the central stretch of the seafront road, are the remains of a medieval castle, built almost entirely of the marble remains of an ancient temple dedicated to Apollo. Similar traces of antiquity, in the shape of bas-reliefs, inscriptions, columns, and so on, are numerous. On a hillside in the southern outskirts of Parikia on the left of the Parikia – Alyki road are the remains of a temple dedicated to Asclepius. In addition, close to the modern harbour, the remains of an ancient cemetery are visible, having been discovered recently during non-archaeological excavations.</p><br>
<p>Back from the port, around 400 m left of Parikias main square, is the towns principal church, the Panagia Ekatontapiliani, literally meaning "church of the hundred doors". Its oldest features almost certainly predate the adoption of Christianity as the state religion of the Roman Empire in 391. It is said to have been founded by the mother of the Roman Emperor Constantine the Great (ruled 306&ndash;337), Saint Helen, during her pilgrimage to the Holy Land. There are two adjoining chapels, one of very early form, and also a baptistery with a cruciform font.</p><br>
<p>Parikia town has a small but interesting archaeological museum housing some of the many finds from sites in Paros. The best pieces, however, are in the Athens National Archaeological Museum. The Paros museum contains a fragment of the Parian Chronicle, a remarkable chronology of ancient Greece. Inscribed in marble, its entries give time elapsed between key events from the most distant past (1500 BC) down to 264 BC.</p><br>
<h2>Other settlements</h2><br>
<p>On the north side of the island is the bay of Naoussa (Naussa) or Agoussa, which provides a safe and spacious harbour. In ancient times it was closed by a chain or boom. Another good harbour is that of Drios on the south-east side, where the Turkish fleet used to anchor on its annual voyage through the Aegean during the period of Ottoman rule over Paros (1537–1832).</p><br>
<p>The three villages of Dragoulas, Mármara and Tsipidos, situated on an open plain on the eastern side of the island, and rich in remains of antiquity, probably occupy the site of an ancient town. They are known together as the "villages of Kephalos" after the steep and lofty hill of Kephalos. On this hilltop stands the monastery of Agios Antonios (St. Anthony). Around it are the ruins of a medieval castle which belonged in the late Middle Ages to the Venetian noble family of the Venieri. They gallantly but vainly defended it against the Turkish admiral Barbarossa in 1537.</p><br>
<p>Another settlement on the island Paros is Lefkes (Λεύκες). Lefkes is an inland mountain village 10 km away from Parikia. In the late 19th century, Lefkes was the center of the municipality of Iria which belonged to the Province of Naxos until 1912. The name of the municipality Iria was one of the ancient names of Paros. Lefkes was the capital of the municipality Iria which included the villages Angyria or Ageria, Aliki, Aneratzia, Vounia, Kamari, Campos, Langada, Maltes and Marathi. Iria became Lefkes Community following the law enforcement DNZ/1912 "On Municipalities". At that time, the village managed to achieve great economic development. In the 1970s many residents moved to Athens, Maroussi and Melissia due to urbanization. However, the last few years, tourism presented to be a new source of income for the locals that led to the reconstruction of homes and landscaping for a peaceful and sweet life. Lefkes became part of the municipality of Paros in the Kapodistrias local government reform. In the latest census (2011) the population numbered 545 inhabitants.</p><br>
<h2>Marble quarries</h2><br>
<p>Parian marble, which is white and translucent (semi-transparent), with a coarse grain and a very beautiful texture, was the chief source of wealth for the island. The celebrated marble quarries lie on the northern side of the mountain anciently known as Marathi (afterwards Capresso), a little below a former convent of St Mina. The marble, which was exported from the 6th century BC onwards, was used by Praxiteles and other great Greek sculptors. It was obtained by means of subterranean quarries driven horizontally or at a descending angle into the rock. The marble thus quarried by lamplight was given the name of Lychnites, Lychneus (from lychnos, a lamp), or Lygdos. Several of these tunnels are still to be seen. At the entrance to one of them is a bas-relief dedicated to Pan and the nymphs. Several attempts to work the marble have been made in modern times, but it has not been exported in any great quantities. The major part of the remaining white marble is now state-owned and, like its Pentelic counterpart, is only used for archaeological restorations.</p><br>
<h2>Notable people</h2><br>
<p>Agoracritus (5th century BC), sculptor</p><br>
<p>Archilochus (c. 680 BC–c. 645 BC), lyric poet</p><br>
<p>Scopas (c. 395–350 BC), sculptor and architect</p><br>
<p>Theoctiste of Lesbos (9th century), hermit saint</p><br>
<p>Thrasymedes (4th century BC), sculptor</p><br>
<p>Thymaridas (c. 400 BC–350 BC), mathematician</p><br>
<p>Nurbanu Sultan (Cecilia Venier-Baffo) (1525–1583) mother of Ottoman Sultan Murad III</p><br>
<p>Vassilis Argyropoulos (1894–1953) actor</p><br>
<p>Nicholas Mavrogenes (1738–1790), prince of Wallachia</p><br>
<p>Athanasius Parios (1721/22–1813), theologian</p><br>
<p>Manto Mavrogenous (1796–1848), heroine in the Greek War of Independence</p><br>
<p>Yiannis Ragousis (1965–), politician</p><br>
<p>Milos or Melos  is a volcanic Greek island in the Aegean Sea, just north of the Sea of Crete. Milos is the southwesternmost island in the Cyclades group.</p><br>
<p>The island is famous for the statue of Aphrodite (the "Venus de Milo", now in the Louvre), and also for statues of the Greek god Asclepius (now in the British Museum), the Poseidon and an archaic Apollo in Athens. Milos is a popular tourist destination during the summer. The Municipality of Milos also includes the uninhabited offshore islands of Antimilos and Akradies. The combined land area is 160.147 km² and the 2011 census population was 4,977 inhabitants.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Obsidian from Milos was a commodity as early as 15,000 years ago. Natural glass from Milos was transported over long distances and used for razor-sharp "stone tools" well before farming began and later: "There is no early farming village in the Near East that doesn&#39;t get obsidian". The mining of obsidian did not lead to the development of permanent habitation or manufacturing on the island. Instead, those in search of obsidian arrived by boat, beaching it in a suitable cove and cutting pieces of the volcanic glass from the quarries.</p><br>
<p>The position of Milos, between mainland Greece and Crete, and its possession of obsidian, made it an important centre of early Aegean civilisation. Milos lost its arms-making importance when bronze became the preferred material for the manufacture of weapons.</p><br>
<h3>The Bronze Age</h3><br>
<p>The first settlement at Phylakopi (Greek Φυλακωπή) arose in the Bronze Age, flourishing as the extraction of obsidian was in the decline. The first settlers were tuna fishermen. was found in the ruins of the Pillar room and was executed with delicate colouring and graphic observation of nature in the graceful movement of a fish. Stylistic similarities to Minoan frescoes are suggested, and it could perhaps have been the work of a Cretan artist. Part of the site has been washed away by the sea.</p><br>
<p>The antiquities found at the site covered three major periods, from the Early Cycladic period to the Mycenaean period. At the site much pottery was excavated, with several changing styles and influences over the site&#39;s long occupation. In the early occupation of the site, there are many similarities and imports from other Cycladic islands and the settlement was very small. During the Middle Bronze Age however the site expanded significantly and the expansion of Minoan Crete saw an influx of Minoan pottery into the Cyclades, particularly at Akrotiri on Thera, though much found its way to Phylakopi. The quantities found at the Cycladic sites have been taken to suggest a Minoan control over the region, though it could also be the consumptive nature of the islanders adopting Cretan fashions. There is more than just pottery at Phylakopi however, the eruption of the Thera volcano saw a reduction in Minoan presence in the Cyclades and it is at this time that Mycenaean involvement on the islands increases. At Phylakopi (and unknown in the rest of the Cyclades) a Megaron structure, which is typically associated with the Mycenaean palaces, such as those at Tiryns, Pylos and Mycenae has been discovered. This has been taken to suggest that the Mycenaeans conquered the settlement and installed a seat of power for a governor. The evidence is not clear, though again it could be a legacy of the islanders adopting foreign elements into their culture. Particularly unexpected was the discovery in the 1970s of a shrine at the site, which contained many examples of Aegean figurines, including the famous "Lady of Phylakopi". The shrine is unprecedented in the Bronze Age Cyclades and has provided a valuable insight into the beliefs and rituals of the inhabitants of Phylakopi. The site was eventually abandoned and was never reoccupied.</p><br>
<h3>Dorian settlement</h3><br>
<p>The first Dorian settlement on Melos was established no earlier than the 1st millennium BC. Dorians are the ethnic group to which the Spartans belonged, but the Dorian settlers of Melos made themselves independent. They eventually established a city whose site lies on the eastern shore of the bay, just south-west of the present-day community of Trypiti.</p><br>
<p>From the 6th century BC up to the siege of 416 BC, Melos issued its own coinage, struck according to the Milesian weight standard: The base coin was the stater which weighed just over 14 grams. Melos was the only island in the Aegean Sea to use this standard. Most coins bore the image of an apple, which is a pun because the ancient Greek word for "apple" (mêlon) sounded similar to the name of the island. The coins also often bore the name of its people: ΜΑΛΙΟΝ (Malion) or some abbreviation thereof.</p><br>
<p>By the 6th century BC, the Melians had also learned to write, and they used an archaic variant of the ancient Greek script that exhibited Cretan and Theraic influences. It was discarded after the siege of 416 BC.</p><br>
<p>From at least as early as 470 BC and ending with the siege of 416 BC, the Melians exported terracotta reliefs, which were typically use as door or chest ornaments and depicted scenes from mythology.</p><br>
<p>During the second Persian invasion of Greece in 480 BC, the Melians refused to submit to Persia and contributed two warships to the Greek war effort, which were used at the Battle of Salamis. After the battle, the Melians returned to their traditional isolationism.</p><br>
<h3>Siege of 416 BC</h3><br>
<p>During the Peloponnesian War (431-404 BC), a war fought between Athens and Sparta, the Melians remained largely neutral despite being of the same ethnicity as the Spartans. They made some small donations to the Spartan war effort but never actually fought alongside them. In 426 BC, an army from Athens raided the Melian countryside, and the following year Athens demanded tribute, but Melos resisted this coercion. In the summer of 416 BC, Athens invaded again with an army of over 3,400 men. Athens demanded that Melos ally with them against Sparta, or be destroyed. The Melians refused to surrender, so the Athenian army laid siege to the city and eventually captured it in the winter of 416 or 415 BC. The Athenians executed all the adult men they caught, and sold the women and children into slavery. They then settled 500 of their own colonists on the island. In 405 BC, with Athens losing the war, the Spartan general Lysander expelled the Athenian settlers from Melos and repatriated the survivors of the siege. Sparta annexed Melos and installed a military governor (a harmost).</p><br>
<p>The decimation of its population and the loss of its independence meant that the cultural distinctiveness of Melos faded away as it was absorbed into mainstream Greek culture. Their coinage switched to the Rhodian standard (tetradrachms weighing 15.3 g) and ceased bearing the word ΜΑΛΙΟΝ. The production of its terracotta reliefs also ceased.</p><br>
<h3>The Hellenistic Period</h3><br>
<p>In 338 BC, Philip II of Macedon defeated the Greeks at the Battle of Chaeroneia and became the overlord of Greece and the Cyclades. During this time, Melos and the nearby island Kimolos disputed each other over the ownership of the islands of Polyaigos, "Heterea", and "Libea" (the last two are probably Agios Efstathios and Agios Georgios). In the past, this dispute would have been settled by war, but the two communities took their dispute to Argos on the Greek mainland. The Argives decided the islands belonged to Kimolos.</p><br>
<h3>The Roman and Byzantine Period</h3><br>
<p>In 197 BC, the Romans forced Philip V to withdraw from Greece, and Melos subsequently came under Roman influence.</p><br>
<p>During the early 9th century AD the Cyclades were harassed by Arab raiders, though how Milos fared at this time is unclear. Milos was mentioned in a Byzantine chrysobull of 1198, which shows it was still important to the Byzantines.</p><br>
<h3>Medieval Period</h3><br>
<p>In the aftermath of the Fourth Crusade (1204), the Venetian Marco Sanudo seized control of Milos and a number of other islands in the Cyclades. Sanduo declared himself the Duke of Naxos, after the island where he established his capital. Sanudo did not make his duchy a vassal of Venice, but instead declared loyalty to the Latin Emperor. Sanudo&#39;s dynasty lasted nine generations, then was succeeded by the Crispos. Both families were Catholic. The majority of the population was (and still is) Greek Orthodox.</p><br>
<p>Up to this point, the population of Melos was overwhelmingly Greek Orthodox Christian, just like the rest of the archipelago. When the Venetians conquered the archipelago, they brought Catholicism with them. The first Catholic bishop of Milos was appointed in 1253.</p><br>
<h3>Ottoman Period</h3><br>
<p>In 1566 the Venetians handed over the Duchy of Naxos to the Ottoman Empire, and its last Catholic duke fled to Venice. The Ottoman sultan Selim II appointed a Jew named Joseph Nasi as its Duke. Upon Nasi&#39;s death in 1579, the Ottomans formally annexed the territory.</p><br>
<p>In the early 18th century, the population surpassed 6,000 and was almost entirely Greek and Christian. It was ruled by Turkish judge (a kadi) and a Turkish governor (a voivode). The voivode was responsible for collecting taxes and enforcing the decisions of the kadi. The day-to-day affairs of the island were managed by three elected magistrates (epitropi), although any of their decisions could be appealed to the kadi. The island had two bishops: one Greek Orthodox and one Latin Catholic. The Greek bishop was wealthier than his Latin counterpart, as he had a larger revenue base. Although the islanders enjoyed a great degree of autonomy, they chafed under the heavy taxation of their Ottoman overlords.</p><br>
<p>In 1771 the island was occupied by the Russian Empire for three years, then retaken by the Ottomans.</p><br>
<p>In the late 18th century, the population declined considerably for uncertain reasons. By 1798, it had fallen below 500 people. Visitors reported that up to two thirds of the buildings had fallen into ruin. It began growing again in the early 19th century, reaching 5,000 people by 1821. Reliable figures are hard to find as the Ottoman Empire never performed a census before 1881.</p><br>
<h3>Modern period</h3><br>
<p>Melos was one of the first islands to join the Greek War of Independence of 1821.</p><br>
<p>During the 19th century, Melos was a major rendezvous point for American and British ships fighting Muslim pirates in the Mediterranean.</p><br>
<p>The population peaked in 1928 at 6,562 people. In 2011 it was 4,977.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Milos is the southwesternmost island in the Cyclades, 120 km due east from the coast of Laconia. From east to west it measures about 23 km, from north to south 13 km, and its area is estimated at 151 km². The greater portion is rugged and hilly, culminating in Mount Profitis Elias 748 m in the west. Like the rest of the cluster, the island is of volcanic origin, with tuff, trachyte and obsidian among its ordinary rocks. The natural harbour is the hollow of the principal crater, which, with a depth diminishing from 70 to 30 fathoms (130–55 m), strikes in from the northwest so as to separate the island into two fairly equal portions (see photo), with an isthmus not more than 18 km broad. In one of the caves on the south coast, the heat from the volcano is still great, and on the eastern shore of the harbour, there are hot sulfurous springs.</p><br>
<p>Antimelos or Antimilos, 13 mi north-west of Milos, is an uninhabited mass of trachyte, often called Erimomilos (Desert Milos). Kimolos, or Argentiera, 1.6 km to the north-east, was famous in antiquity for its figs and fullers earth, and contained a considerable city, the remains of which cover the cliff of St. Andrews. Polyaigos (also called Polinos, Polybos or Polivo — alternative spelling Polyaegos) lies 2 km south-east of Kimolos. It was the subject of dispute between the Milians and Kimolians. It is now uninhabited.</p><br>
<p>The harbour town is Adamantas; from this there is an ascent to the plateau above the harbour, on which are situated Plaka, the chief town, and Kastro, rising on a hill above it, and other villages. The ancient town of Milos was nearer to the entrance of the harbour than Adamas, and occupied the slope between the village of Trypiti and the landing-place at Klima. Here is a theatre of Roman date and some remains of town walls and other buildings, one with a fine mosaic excavated by the British school at Athens in 1896. Numerous fine works of art have been found on this site, notably the Aphrodite in Paris, the Asclepius in London, and the Poseidon and the archaic Apollo in Athens. Other villages include Triovasalos, Peran Triovasalos, Pollonia and Zefyria (Kampos).</p><br>
<h3>Climate</h3><br>
<p>Milos has a Mediterranean climate (Köppen climate classification Csa) with mild, rainy winters and warm to hot dry summers.</p><br>
<h2>Natural resources</h2><br>
<p>Bentonite, perlite, pozzolana and small quantities of kaolin are actively collected via strip mine or open-pit mine techniques in Milos and sold all over the world. In the past, baryte, sulfur, millstones and gypsum were also mined; in fact, Pliny notes that Milos was the most abundant source of sulfur in the ancient world. In ancient times the alum of Milos was reckoned next to that of Egypt (Pliny xxxv. 15 ). The Melian earth was employed as a pigment by ancient artists. Milos was a source of obsidian during the Neolithic ages for the Aegean and Mediterranean. Orange, olive, cypress, tamarisk, juniper (Juniperus oxycedrus) and arbutus trees grow throughout the island, which, however, is too dry to have any profusion of vegetation. Vines, cotton and barley are the main crops.</p><br>
<h2>Beaches</h2><br>
<p>There are only 70 beaches on Milos Island. Hivadolimni Beach is the longest at about 1 km. The rest of the beaches are starting from (North): Sarakiniko Beach, Papafragas, Kapros, Pachena, Alogomantra, Konstantinos, Mitakas, Mantrakia, Firopotamos, Nerodafni, Lakida, Plathiena, Fourkovouni, Areti, Pollonia, Gourado and Filakopi. (South): Firiplaka, Paliochori, Provatas, Tsigrado, Agia Kyriaki, Psaravolada, Kleftiko, Gerontas, Gerakas, Agios Sostis, Mouchlioti, Katergo, Spathi, Firligos, Pialothiafes, Kalamos, Krotiraki, Psathi, Svoronou and Sakelari. (West): Agios Ioannis, Cave of Sikia, Agathia, Triades and Ammoudaraki. (East): Voudia, Thalassa, Paliorema, Tria Pagidia and Thiafes. (In the Bay Area): Hivadolimni, Lagada, Papikinou, Fatourena, Klima, Skinopi and Patrikia. The North and South and bay beaches are tourist attractions. The east beaches are very quiet, and those to the west are also quiet beaches.</p><br>
<h2>Demographics</h2><br>
<h3>Historical population</h3><br>
<h2>Notable people</h2><br>
<p>Diagoras (5th century BC), a philosopher</p><br>
<p>Melanippides, poet</p><br>
<p>Antonio Millo, captain and cartographer</p><br>
<p>Antonio Vassilacchi (1556–1629), a painter</p><br>
<h2>Sister island</h2><br>
<p>Shōdo Island, Japan</p><br>
<p>Mount Paektu or Mount Baekdu is an active volcano on the border between North Korea and China. At 2,744 m, it is the highest mountain of the Changbai and Baekdudaegan ranges. North and South Koreans consider the volcano and its caldera lake to be their countries&#39; spiritual home.</p><br>
<p>It is also the highest mountain on the Korean Peninsula and in Northeast China. A large crater lake, called Heaven Lake, is in the caldera atop the mountain. The caldera was formed by the VEI 7 "Millennium" or "Tianchi" eruption of 946, which erupted about 100–120 km of tephra. This was one of the largest and most violent eruptions in the last 5,000 years (alongside the Hatepe eruption of Lake Taupo at around 180 AD and the 1815 eruption of Tambora).</p><br>
<h2>Names</h2><br>
<p>The modern names of the mountain in Chinese and Korean come from the Sushen or Proto-Jurchen language of the Manchu peoples. Its modern Manchu name is Golmin Šanggiyan Alin or Long/Ever White Mountain. Similarly, its Mongolian name is Ondor Tsagaan Aula, the Lofty White Mountain.</p><br>
<p>In Chinese, the mountain itself is known as Chángbáishān ("Ever White Mountain") but the mountain and Heaven Lake taken together are known as Báitóushān ("Whitehead Mountain"). This later name, read in Korean and variously romanized, is the source of the North Korean name Paektu-san and South Korean Baekdu-san.</p><br>
<p>In English, various authors have used non-standard transliterations.</p><br>
<h2>Geography and geology</h2><br>
<p>Mount Baekdu is a stratovolcano whose cone is truncated by a large caldera, about 5 km wide and 850 m deep, partially filled by the waters of Heaven Lake. Volcanic ash from this eruption has been found as far away as the southern part of Hokkaidō, the northern island of Japan. The lake has a circumference of 12to14 km, with an average depth of 213 m and maximum depth of 384 m. From mid-October to mid-June, the lake is typically covered with ice. In 2011, experts in North and South Korea met to discuss the potential for a significant eruption in the near future,</p><br>
<p>as the volcano explodes to life every 100 years or so, the last time in 1903. Despite political tensions, Western scientists have also worked with North Korean scientists to study the volcano.</p><br>
<p>The geological forces forming Mount Paektu remain a mystery. Two leading theories are first a hot spot formation and second an uncharted portion of the Pacific Plate sinking beneath Mount Paektun.</p><br>
<p>The central section of the mountain rises about 3 mm per year due to rising levels of magma below the central part of the mountain. Sixteen peaks exceeding 2,500 m (8,200 ft) line the caldera rim surrounding Heaven Lake. The highest peak, called Janggun Peak, is covered in snow about eight months of the year. The slope is relatively gentle until about 1,800 m.</p><br>
<p>Water flows north out of the lake, and near the outlet there is a 70 m waterfall. The mountain is the source of the Songhua, Tumen and Yalu rivers. The Tumen and the Yalu form the northern border between North Korea and Russia and China.</p><br>
<h3>Climate</h3><br>
<p>The weather on the mountain can be very erratic, sometimes severe. The annual average temperature at the peak is −4.9 &deg;C. During summer, temperatures of about 18 &deg;C or higher can be reached, and during winter temperatures can drop to −48 &deg;C. The lowest record temperature was −51 &deg;C on January 2, 1997.</p><br>
<p>Average temperature is about −24 &deg;C in January, and 10 &deg;C in July, remaining below freezing for eight months of the year. Average wind speed is 42 km per hour, peaking at 63 km per hour. Relative humidity averages 74%.</p><br>
<h3>Eruptions</h3><br>
<p>Mount Paektu has had at least two ignimbrite-forming eruptions in the past 5000 years. The tephra from the later eruption has been found in Greenland, which agrees with the age of the Mount Paektu eruption. The 946 AD eruption has been dubbed the "Millennium eruption", while the earlier eruption is referred to as the "Tianwenfen eruption".</p><br>
<h4>Millennium eruption</h4><br>
<p>The Millennium eruption was one of the largest and most violent eruptions of the last 5000 years (alongside the Hatepe eruption of Lake Taupo at around 180 AD and the 1815 eruption of Tambora, which had a Volcanic Explosivity Index rating of 7), and it has been recorded in the book of Koryo History.</p><br>
<p>In AD 946, "thunders from the heaven drum" (likely the explosions from the Millennium eruption) were heard in the city of Kaesong, and then again in the capital of ancient Korea about 450 km south of the Paektusan volcano, which terrified the emperor so much that the convicts were pardoned and set free. According to the book of Heungboksa Temple History, on November 3 of the same year in the city of Nara (Japan), about 1100 km southeast from the Paektusan volcano, an event of "white ash rain" was recorded. Three months later, on 7 February 947, "drum thunders" were heard in the city of Kyoto (Japan), about 1000 km southeast of the Paektu Mountain volcano, based on the written documentation in the book of Japan history. The Tianwenfeng eruption also has been record in the Manchurian myths. Manchus described the Paektu Mountain as "Fire Dragon", "Fire Demon" or "Heavenly Fire".</p><br>
<h4>Tianwenfeng eruption</h4><br>
<p>The age of the Tianwenfeng eruption is not clear, but the carbonized wood in Heifengkou lag breccia has been dated at around 4105 ± 90 B.P. This eruption formed large areas covered in yellow pumice and ignimbrite and released about 23.14 megatons of SO2 into stratosphere. The bulk volume of the ejecta is at least 100 km³, making the Tianwenfeng eruption also of VEI 7.</p><br>
<h4>Recent events</h4><br>
<p>After these major eruptions, Mount Paektu had at least 3 smaller eruptions, which occurred in 1668, 1702, and 1903, likely forming the Baguamiao ignimbrite, the Wuhaojie fine pumice and the Liuhaojie tuff ring.</p><br>
<p>In 2014, the Government of North Korea invited volcanologists James Hammond of Imperial College, London and Clive Oppenheimer of the University of Cambridge to study the mountain for recent volcanic activity. Their work is expected to last for "two or three years".</p><br>
<h2>Flora and fauna</h2><br>
<p>There are five known species of plants in the lake on the peak, and some 168 were counted along its shores. The forest on the Chinese side is ancient and almost unaltered by humans. Birch predominates near the tree line, and pine lower down, mixed with other species. There has been extensive deforestation on the lower slopes on the North Korean side of the mountain.</p><br>
<p>The area is a known habitat for Siberian tigers, bears, Amur leopards, wolves, and wild boars. The Ussuri dholes may have been extirpated from the area. Deer in the mountain forests, which cover the mountain up to about 2000 metres, are of the Paekdusan roe deer kind. Many wild birds such as black grouse, owls, and woodpecker are known to inhabit the area. The mountain has been identified by BirdLife International as an Important Bird Area (IBA) because it supports a population of scaly-sided mergansers.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Mount Baekdu has been worshipped by the surrounding peoples throughout history. Both the Koreans and Manchus consider it the place of their ancestral origin.</p><br>
<h3>China</h3><br>
<p>Mount Baektu was first recorded in the Chinese Classic of Mountains and Seas under the name Buxian Shan. It is also called Shanshan Daling in the Book of the Later Han. In the New Book of Tang, it was called Taibai Shan. The current Chinese name Changbai Shan was first used in the Liao dynasty (907–1125) of the Khitans and then the Jin dynasty (1115–1234) of the Jurchens. The Jin dynasty bestowed the title "the King Who Makes the Nation Prosperous and Answers with Miracles" on the sanshin in 1172 and it was promoted to "the Emperor Who Cleared the Sky with Tremendous Sagehood" in 1193.</p><br>
<p>The Manchu clan Aisin Gioro, which founded the Qing dynasty in China, claimed their progenitor Bukūri Yongšon was conceived near Paektu Mountain.</p><br>
<h3>Korea</h3><br>
<p>The mountain was considered sacred by Koreans throughout history. According to Korean mythology, it was the birthplace of Dangun, the founder of the first Korean kingdom, Gojoseon (2333–108 BC), whose parents were said to be Hwanung, the Son of Heaven, and a bear who had been transformed into a woman. Many subsequent kingdoms of Korea, such as Buyeo, Goguryeo, Balhae, Goryeo and Joseon worshipped the mountain.</p><br>
<p>The Goryeo dynasty (935–1392) first called the mountain Baekdu, recording that the Jurchens across the Yalu River were made to live outside of Mount Paektu. The Joseon Dynasty (1392–1910) recorded volcanic eruptions in 1597, 1668, and 1702. In the 15th century, King Sejong the Great strengthened the fortification along the Tumen and Yalu rivers, making the mountain a natural border with the northern peoples. Some Koreans claim that the entire region near Mount Paektu and the Tumen River belongs to Korea and parts of it were illegally given away by Japanese colonialists to China through the Gando Convention.</p><br>
<p>Dense forest around the mountain provided bases for Korean armed resistance against the Japanese occupation, and later communist guerrillas during the Korean War. Kim Il-sung organized his resistance against the Japanese forces there, and North Korea claims that Kim Jong-il was born there, although records outside of North Korea suggest that he was actually born in the Soviet Union.</p><br>
<p>North Korea appropriates the mountain&#39;s mythology in its propaganda and uses it like a brand-name, for example with the Paektusan rocket and the Paektusan computer. The peak is featured on the Emblem of North Korea, defined in Article 169 of the Constitution, which describes Mt Paektu as "the sacred mountain of the revolution". The mountain is often referred to in slogans such as: "Let us accomplish the Korean revolution in the revolutionary spirit of Paektu, the spirit of the blizzards of Paektu!" North Korean media even celebrates portentous natural phenomenon witnessed at the mountain.</p><br>
<h3>Border disputes</h3><br>
<h4>Historical border disputes</h4><br>
<p>According to Annals of the Joseon Dynasty, the Yalu (鴨綠江) and Tumen Rivers (土門江/圖們江) were set as the borders in the era of the founder of Joseon Dynasty, Taejo of Joseon (1335–1408).</p><br>
<p>Because of the continuous entry of Korean people into Gando, a region in Manchuria that lay north of the Tumen, Manchu and Korean officials surveyed the area and negotiated a border agreement in 1712. To mark the agreement, they built a monument describing the boundary at a watershed, near the south of the crater lake at the mountain peak. The interpretation of the inscription caused a territorial dispute from the late 19th century to the early 20th century, and is still disputed by academics today. The 1909 Gando Convention between China and Japan, when Korea was under Japanese rule, recognized the area north and east as Chinese territory. The border was further clarified in 1962, when China and North Korea negotiated a border treaty on the mountain border in response to minor disputes. The two countries agreed to share the mountain and the lake at the peak, with Korea controlling approximately 54.5% and gaining approximately 230 km in the treaty.</p><br>
<h4>Recent border disputes</h4><br>
<p>Some South Korean groups argue that recent activities conducted on the Chinese side of the border, such as economic development, cultural festivals, infrastructure development, promotion of the tourism industry, attempts at registration as a World Heritage Site, and bids for a Winter Olympic Games, are an attempt to claim the mountain as Chinese territory (both the Peoples Republic of China and the Republic of China claim their regions territory as their own). These groups object to China&#39;s use of Mount Changbai, which has been used since Liao Dynasty</p><br>
<p>During the 2007 Asian Winter Games, which were held in Changchun, China, a group of South Korean athletes held up signs during the award ceremony which stated "Mount Baektu is our territory" (both North Korea and South Korea claim each others countries territory as their own). Chinese sports officials delivered a letter of protest on the grounds that political activities violated the spirit of the Olympics and were banned in the charter of the International Olympic Committee and the Olympic Council of Asia. The head of the Korea Olympic Committee responded by stating that the incident was accidental and held no political meaning. South Korea has attempted to avoid having this issue become a source of friction between South Korea and China. However, the athletes&#39; gesture did not become as big an issue as Liancourt Rocks dispute and the Sea of Japan naming dispute.</p><br>
<p>The 2007 official National Atlas of Korea shows the boundary as per the 1962 agreement, roughly splitting the mountain and the caldera lake. However, South Korea, which claims all of North Korea as its territory, claims the caldera lake and the inside part of the ridge enclosing as South Korean territory.</p><br>
<h2>Sightseeing</h2><br>
<p>Foreign visitors, mostly South Koreans, usually climb the mountain from the Chinese side, although Mount Paektu is a common tourist destination for foreign tourists in North Korea. The Chinese touristic site is classified as a AAAAA scenic area by the China National Tourism Administration.</p><br>
<p>There are a number of monuments on the North Korean side of the mountain. Baekdu Spa is a natural spring and is used for bottled water. Pegae Hill is a camp site of the Korean Peoples Revolutionary Army allegedly led by Kim Il-sung during their struggle against Japanese colonial rule. There are also a number of secret camps which are now open to the public. There are several waterfalls, including the Hyongje Falls which splits into two separate falls about a third of the way from the top. In 1992, on the occasion of the 80th birthday of Kim Il-sung, a gigantic sign consisting of metal letters reading "Holy mountain of the revolution" was erected on the side of the mountain. North Koreans claim that steps that lead to the top of the mountain contain 216 steps—symbolizing Kim Jong-ils date of birth, 16 February—but in reality there are more steps.</p><br>
<p>Ios  is a Greek island in the Cyclades group in the Aegean Sea. Ios is a hilly island with cliffs down to the sea on most sides, situated halfway between Naxos and Santorini. It is about 18 km long and 10 km wide, with an area of 109.024 km². Population was 2,024 in 2011 . Ios is part of the Thira regional unit. Ios was the setting for the movie Ginger and Cinnamon . Also, scenes from the film Big Blue  were shot in Manganari.</p><br>
<h2>City of Chora</h2><br>
<p>The Port of Ios is at the head of the Ormos harbor in the northwest. From there the bus or a 15-minute walk up the steep donkey path takes you to the village, known as Chora. Chora is a white and very picturesque cycladic village, full of stairs and narrow paths that make it inaccessible for cars of any kind. Today, the main path through this village is completely taken over by tourism in terms of restaurants, boutiques, bars and discothèques. Apart from the port and the village of Chora, Ios has only a few small settlements, just a group of spread out houses in the background of major beaches (Theodoti, Kalamos, Manganari). Since the 1990s, the island mayor Pousseos has worked on Ios&#39; development towards attracting different types of tourists. With the help of European Community funds some roads have been built, all of them paved, and a scenic amphitheater has been created by the German architect Peter Haupt (who died in 2003) at the top of the village hill. Unfortunately, cultural events rarely take place up there.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Excavations on Skarkos hill unearthed a prehistoric settlement, proving that Ios has been inhabited since the early Cycladic period. The architecture at Skarkos is preserved in places up to a height of almost three meters, with most of the buildings evidently having two storeys, stone-paved floors and a sewage system. Numerous well-preserved pottery, tools and utensils made of metal, stone and bone were also discovered. Unfortunately, the Skarkos site remains largely unpublished. In 2008, Ios was among six European locations (out of 109 candidates) awarded the European Union Cultural Heritage prize for its exceptional conservation efforts at the archaeological site of Skarkos.</p><br>
<p>During later times, Ios made rather few marks in history. According to ancient tradition, Homer&#39;s mother was from Ios,</p><br>
<p>and he himself was buried there - and indeed the locals will show visitors the site of the ancient town of Plakotos at the northernmost end of the island, where the rocky entrance to a tomb may be seen. There is no physical evidence connecting this with Homer however. There are signs of Mycenaean settlement. The north end of Ios has a ruined Venetian castle from the 15th century. The island is said to have 365 churches and chapels, like the days of the year.</p><br>
<h2>Ecclesiastical history</h2><br>
<p>Ios was important enough in the Aegean insular Roman province of Insulae to become a suffragan of its capital Rhodes&#39;s Metropolitan Archbishopric of Rhodes, but later faded and disappeared as a see.</p><br>
<p>Its territory is now part of the Greek Orthodox Metropolis of Thera, Amorgos and the Islands of the Church of Greece.</p><br>
<h3>Roman Catholic titular see</h3><br>
<p>The Latin diocese was nominally restored by the Roman Catholic Church as a titular bishopric in 1933.</p><br>
<p>It has been vacant for decades, having had the following incumbents, all of the lowest (episcopal) rank :</p><br>
<p>Neil Savaryn, Basilian Order of Saint Josaphat (O.S.B.M., Byzantine Rite) (1943.04.03 – 1956.11.03)</p><br>
<p>James Cunningham (1957.08.19 – 1958.07.01)</p><br>
<p>Michel Blecharczyk (1958.07.06 – 1965.11.10)</p><br>
<h2>Beaches</h2><br>
<p>Ios attracts a large number of young tourists, many of whom used to sleep on their sleeping bags during the 1970s on the popular beach of Mylopotas after partying through the night. Today Mylopotas beach has been developed to an equivalent mass package tourism resort like Platys Gialos and Paradise Beach of Mykonos.</p><br>
<p>Taumatawhakatangi&shy;hangakoauauotamatea&shy;turipukakapikimaunga&shy;horonukupokaiwhen&shy;uakitanatahu is a hill near Porangahau, south of Waipukurau in southern Hawke&#39;s Bay, New Zealand. The height of the hill is 305 m. The hill is notable primarily for its unusually long name, which is of Māori origin; it is often shortened to Taumata for brevity. It has gained a measure of fame as it is the longest place name found in any English-speaking country, and the second-longest place name in the world, according to Wises New Zealand Guide and The New Zealand Herald. The name of the hill  has also been listed in the Guinness World Records as the longest place name.</p><br>
<p>Other versions of the name, including longer ones, are also sometimes used.</p><br>
<h2>Pronunciation</h2><br>
<p>Broken down by syllable, the full place name is pronounced: Tau-ma-ta-wha-ka-ta-ngi-ha-nga-ko-au-au-o-ta-ma-te-a-tu-ri-pu-ka-ka-pi-ki-mau-nga-ho-ro-nu-ku-po-kai-whe-nu-a-ki-ta-na-ta-hu. (40 syllables)</p><br>
<h2>Meaning of the name</h2><br>
<p>The name "Taumatawhakatangi&shy;hangakoauauotamatea&shy;turipukakapikimaunga&shy;horonukupokaiwhen&shy;uakitanatahu" translates roughly as "The summit where Tamatea, the man with the big knees, the slider, climber of mountains, the land-swallower who travelled about, played his nose flute to his loved one".</p><br>
<h2>Other versions</h2><br>
<p>Some forms of the name are longer still: "Taumatawhakatangi&shy;hangakoauauotamatea&shy;urehaeaturipukakapikimaunga&shy;horonukupokaiwhen&shy;uakitanatahu" has 92 letters. An even longer version, Taumata-whakatangihanga-koauau-o-Tamatea-haumai-tawhiti-ure-haea-turi-pukaka-piki-maunga-horo-nuku-pokai-whenua-ki-tana-tahu, has 105 letters and means "The hill of the nose-flute playing by Tamatea – who was blown hither from afar, had a slit penis, grazed his knees climbing mountains, fell on the earth, and encircled the land – to his beloved one".</p><br>
<p>The New Zealand Geographic Placenames Database, maintained by Land Information New Zealand (LINZ), uses the somewhat shorter (57-character) name "Taumatawhakatangi&shy;hangakoauauotamatea&shy;pokaiwhenuakitanatahu".</p><br>
<h2>Tamatea, explorer of the land</h2><br>
<p>In traditions from the Bay of Plenty region, he left a son, Ranginui, who is the ancestor of Ngāti Ranginui of Tauranga. Legends from the East Coast of the North Island tell of his explorations in Tūranga-nui (Gisborne), Māhia, Wairoa, Ahuriri (Napier), Heretaunga (near Hastings) and Pōrangahau. He travelled via the Mangakopikopiko River, over the Tītī-o-kura saddle via Pohokura to Lake Taupo. The Ōtamatea River and swamp is named after him. Tamatea is also the name of a place in Napier.</p><br>
<p>Early South Island legends say that Tamatea sailed down the east coast. His canoe was wrecked in the far south, and transformed into Tākitimu mountain range. Tamatea then returned to the North Island, and travelled via the Whanganui River.</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>The name is featured in a Mountain Dew jingle and a SEEK Learning TV ad in Australia. It also appears in the 1976 (re-released in 1979) single "The Lone Ranger" by British band Quantum Jump, which featured in the title sequence of the second series of The Kenny Everett Video Show. It is the subject of a 1960 song by the New Zealand balladeer Peter Cape.</p><br>
<p>Tennis star Martina Navratilova learned to say the word when she was ten years old.</p><br>
<p>Mount Hood, called Wyeast by the Multnomah tribe, is a potentially active stratovolcano in the Cascade Volcanic Arc of northern Oregon. It was formed by a subduction zone on the Pacific coast and rests in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States. It is located about 50 mi east-southeast of Portland, on the border between Clackamas and Hood River counties. In addition to being Oregons highest mountain, it is one of the loftiest mountains in the nation based on its prominence.</p><br>
<p>The height assigned to Mount Hood&#39;s snow-covered peak has varied over its history. Modern sources point to three different heights: 11,249 ft, a 1991 adjustment of a 1986 measurement by the USA National Geodetic Survey (NGS), 11,240 ft based on a 1993 scientific expedition, and 11,239 ft of slightly older origin. The peak is home to 12 named glaciers and snowfields. It is the highest point in Oregon and the fourth highest in the Cascade Range.</p><br>
<p>Mount Hood is considered the Oregon volcano most likely to erupt,Most likely to erupt based on history; see</p><br>
<p>though based on its history, an explosive eruption is unlikely. Still, the odds of an eruption in the next 30 years are estimated at between 3 and 7 %, so the USA Geological Survey (USGS) characterizes it as "potentially active", but the mountain is informally considered dormant.</p><br>
<h2>Establishments</h2><br>
<p>Timberline Lodge is a National Historic Landmark located on the southern flank of Mount Hood just below Palmer Glacier, with an elevation of about 6,000 ft.</p><br>
<p>The mountain has six ski areas: Timberline, Mount Hood Meadows, Ski Bowl, Cooper Spur, Snow Bunny, and Summit. They total over 4,600 acre of skiable terrain; Timberline offers the only year-round lift-served skiing in North America.</p><br>
<p>Mount Hood is within the Mount Hood National Forest, which comprises 1,067,043 acre of land, including four designated wilderness areas that total 314,078 acre, and more than 1,200 mi of hiking trails.</p><br>
<p>The most northwestern pass around the mountain is called Lolo Pass. Native Americans crossed the pass while traveling between the Willamette Valley and Celilo Falls.</p><br>
<h2>Name</h2><br>
<p>The Multnomah name for Mount Hood was Wyeast. In one version of the legend, the two sons of the Great Spirit Sahale fell in love with the beautiful maiden Loowit, who could not decide which to choose. The two braves, Wyeast and Pahto, burned forests and villages in their battle over her. Sahale became enraged and smote the three lovers. Seeing what he had done, he erected three mountain peaks to mark where each fell. He made beautiful Mount St. Helens for Loowit, proud and erect Mount Hood for Wy&#39;east, and the somber Mount Adams for the mourning Pahto.</p><br>
<p>There are other versions of the legend. In another telling, Wyeast (Hood) battles Pahto (Adams) for the fair La-wa-la-clough (St. Helens). Or again Wyeast, the chief of the Multnomah tribe, competed with the chief of the Klickitat tribe. Their great anger led to their transformation into volcanoes. Their battle is said to have destroyed the Bridge of the Gods and thus created the great Cascades Rapids of the Columbia River.</p><br>
<p>The mountain was given its present name on October 29, 1792, by Lt. William Broughton, a member of Captain George Vancouvers exploration expedition. Lt. Broughton observed its peak while at Belle Vue Point of what is now called Sauvie Island during his travels up the Columbia River, writing, "A very high, snowy mountain now appeared rising beautifully conspicuous in the midst of an extensive tract of low or moderately elevated land lying S 67 E., and seemed to announce a termination to the river." Lt. Broughton named the mountain after Samuel Hood, 1st Viscount Hood, a British Admiral at the Battle of the Chesapeake.</p><br>
<p>Lewis and Clark spotted the mountain on October 18, 1805. A few days later at what would become The Dalles, Clark wrote, "The pinnacle of the round topped mountain, which we saw a short distance below the banks of the river, is South 43-degrees West of us and about 37 mi. It is at this time topped with snow. We called this the Falls Mountain, or Timm Mountain." Timm was the native name for Celilo Falls. Clark later noted that it was also Vancouver&#39;s Mount Hood.</p><br>
<p>Two French explorers from the Hudson&#39;s Bay Company may have traveled into the Dog River area east of Mount Hood in 1818. They reported climbing to a glacier on "Montagne de Neige" (Mountain of Snow), probably Eliot Glacier.</p><br>
<h3>Ships</h3><br>
<p>There have been two United States Navy ammunition ships named for Mount Hood, despite the mountain&#39;s namesake having been an enemy commander. USS Mount Hood (AE-11) was commissioned in July 1944 and was destroyed in November 1944 while at anchor in Manus Naval Base, Admiralty Islands. Her explosive cargo ignited, resulting in 45 confirmed dead, 327 missing and 371 injured.</p><br>
<p>A second ammunition ship, AE-29, was commissioned in May 1971 and decommissioned in August 1999.</p><br>
<h2>Volcanic activity</h2><br>
<p>The glacially eroded summit area consists of several andesitic or dacitic lava domes; Pleistocene collapses produced avalanches and lahars (rapidly moving mudflows) that traveled across the Columbia River to the north. The eroded volcano has had at least four major eruptive periods during the past 15,000 years.</p><br>
<p>The last three eruptions at Mount Hood occurred within the past 1,800 years from vents high on the southwest flank and produced deposits that were distributed primarily to the south and west along the Sandy and Zigzag rivers. The last eruptive period took place around 220 to 170 years ago, when dacitic lava domes, pyroclastic flows and mudflows were produced without major explosive eruptions. The prominent Crater Rock just below the summit is hypothesized to be the remains of one of these now-eroded domes. This period includes the last major eruption of 1781 to 1782 with a slightly more recent episode ending shortly before the arrival of the explorers Lewis and Clark in 1805. The latest minor eruptive event occurred in August 1907.</p><br>
<p>The glaciers on the mountain&#39;s upper slopes may be a source of potentially dangerous lahars when the mountain next erupts. There are vents near the summit that are known for emitting gases such as carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide. Prior to the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens, the only known fatality related to volcanic activity in the Cascades occurred in 1934, when a climber suffocated in oxygen-poor air while exploring ice caves melted by fumaroles in Coalman Glacier on Mount Hood.</p><br>
<p>Since 1950, there have been several earthquake swarms each year at Mount Hood, most notably in July 1980 and June 2002.</p><br>
<p>Seismic activity is monitored by the USGS Cascades Volcano Observatory in Vancouver, Washington, which issues weekly updates (and daily updates if significant eruptive activity is occurring at a Cascades volcano).</p><br>
<p>The most recent evidence of volcanic activity at Mount Hood consists of fumaroles near Crater Rock and hot springs on the flanks of the volcano.</p><br>
<h2>Elevation</h2><br>
<p>Mount Hood was first seen by European explorers in 1792 and is believed to have maintained a consistent summit elevation, varying by no more than a few feet due to mild seismic activity. Elevation changes since the 1950s are predominantly due to improved survey methods and model refinements of the shape of the Earth (see vertical reference datum). Despite the physical consistency, the estimated elevation of Mount Hood has varied substantially over the years.</p><br>
<p>Early explorers on the Columbia River estimated the elevation to be 10000 to 12000 ft. Two people in Thomas J. Dryers 1854 expedition calculated the elevation to be 18,361 ft and that the tree line was at about 11,250 ft. Two months later, a Mr. Belden claimed to have climbed the mountain during a hunting trip and determined it to be 19,400 ft upon which "pores oozed blood, eyes bled, and blood rushed from their ears." Sometime by 1866, Reverend G. H. Atkinson determined it to be 17,600 ft. A Portland engineer used surveying methods from a Portland baseline and calculated a height of between 18,000 and. Many maps distributed in the late 19th century cited 18,361 ft, though Mitchells School Atlas gave 14,000 ft as the correct value. For some time, many references assumed Mount Hood to be the highest point in North America.</p><br>
<p>Modern height surveys also vary, but not by the huge margins seen in the past. A 1993 survey by a scientific party that arrived at the peak&#39;s summit with 16 lb of electronic equipment reported a height of 11,240 ft, claimed to be accurate to within 1.25 in.</p><br>
<p>Many modern sources likewise list 11,240 ft as the height.</p><br>
<p>However, numerous others place the peak&#39;s height one foot lower, at 11,239 ft. Finally, a height of 11,249 ft has also been reported.</p><br>
<h2>Glaciers</h2><br>
<p>Mount Hood is host to 12</p><br>
<p>named glaciers or snow fields, the most visited of which is Palmer Glacier, partially within the Timberline Lodge ski area and on the most popular climbing route. The glaciers are almost exclusively above the 6,000 ft level, which also is about the average tree line elevation on Mount Hood. More than 80 percent of the glacial surface area is above 7,000 ft.</p><br>
<p>The glaciers and permanent snow fields have an area of 3,331 acre and contain a volume of about 282,000 acre.ft. Eliot Glacier is the largest glacier by volume at 73,000 acre.ft, and has the thickest depth measured by ice radar at 361 ft. The largest glacier by surface area is the Coe-Ladd Glacier system at 531 acres.</p><br>
<p>Glaciers and snowfields cover about 80 percent of the mountain above the 6,900 ft level. The glaciers declined by an average of 34 percent from 1907–2004. Glaciers on Mount Hood retreated through the first half of the 20th century, advanced or at least slowed their retreat in the 1960s and 1970s, and have since returned to a pattern of retreat. The neo-glacial maximum extents formed in the early 18th century.</p><br>
<p>During the last major glacial event between 29,000 and 10,000 years ago, glaciers reached down to the 2600 to 2300 ft level, a distance of 9.3 mi from the summit. The retreat released considerable outwash, some of which filled and flattened the upper Hood River Valley near Parkdale and formed Dee Flat.</p><br>
<p>Older glaciation produced moraines near Brightwood and distinctive cuts on the southeast side; they may date to 140,000 years ago.</p><br>
<h2>Climbing</h2><br>
<p>Mount Hood is Oregon&#39;s highest point and a prominent landmark visible up to 100 mi away. It has convenient access and a minimum of technical climbing challenges. About 10,000 people attempt to climb Mount Hood each year.</p><br>
<p>There are no trails to the summit. Even the "easier" southside climbing route is a technical climb with crevasses, falling rocks, and often inclement weather. Ropes, ice axes, crampons and other technical mountaineering gear are necessary. Peak climbing season is generally from April to mid-June.</p><br>
<p>There are six main routes to approach the mountain with about 30 total variations for summiting. The climbs range in difficulty from class 2 to class 5.9+ (for Acrophobia).</p><br>
<p>The most popular route, dubbed the south route, begins at Timberline Lodge and proceeds up Palmer Glacier to Crater Rock, the large prominence at the head of the glacier. The route goes east around Crater Rock and crosses Coalman Glacier on the Hogsback, a ridge spanning from Crater Rock to the approach to the summit. The Hogsback terminates at a bergschrund where Coalman Glacier separates from the summit rock headwall, and then to Pearly Gates, a gap in the summit rock formation, then right onto the summit plateau and the summit proper.</p><br>
<p>Technical ice axes, fall protection, and experience are now recommended in order to attempt the left chute variation or Pearly Gates ice chute. The Forest Service is recommending several other route options due to these changes in conditions (e.g. "Old Chute", West Crater Rim, etc.).</p><br>
<h3>Climbing accidents</h3><br>
<p>As of May 2002, more than 130 people had died in climbing-related accidents since records have been kept on Mount Hood, the first in 1896.</p><br>
<p>Incidents in May 1986, December 2006, and December 2009 attracted intense national and international media interest.</p><br>
<p>Though avalanches are a common hazard on other glaciated mountains, most Mount Hood climbing deaths are the result of falls and hypothermia.</p><br>
<p>Despite a quadrupling of forest visitors since 1990, fewer than 50 people require rescue per year.</p><br>
<p>Only 3.4 percent of search and rescue missions in 2006 were for mountain climbers.</p><br>
<h2>Hiking</h2><br>
<p>The Timberline Trail, which circumnavigates the entire mountain and rises as high a 7,300 ft (2,200 m), was built in the 1930s by the Civilian Conservation Corps. Typically, the 40.7 mi hike is snow-free from late July until the autumn snows begin. A portion of the Pacific Crest Trail is coincident with the Timberline Trail on the west side of Mount Hood.</p><br>
<p>The predecessor of the Pacific Crest Trail was the Oregon Skyline Trail, established in 1920, which connected Mount Hood to Crater Lake.</p><br>
<p>HMS Endeavour&#39;, also known as HM Bark Endeavour&#39;, was a British Royal Navy research vessel that Lieutenant James Cook commanded on his first voyage of discovery, to Australia and New Zealand, from 1769 to 1771.</p><br>
<p>She was launched in 1764 as the collier Earl of Pembroke, and the navy purchased her in 1768 for a scientific mission to the Pacific Ocean and to explore the seas for the surmised Terra Australis Incognita or "unknown southern land". The navy renamed and commissioned her as His Majesty&#39;s Bark the Endeavour. She departed Plymouth in August 1768, rounded Cape Horn, and reached Tahiti in time to observe the 1769 transit of Venus across the Sun. She then set sail into the largely uncharted ocean to the south, stopping at the Pacific islands of Huahine, Bora Bora, and Raiatea to allow Cook to claim them for Great Britain. In September 1769, she anchored off New Zealand, the first European vessel to reach the islands since Abel Tasman&#39;s Heemskerck 127 years earlier.</p><br>
<p>In April 1770, Endeavour became the first ship to reach the east coast of Australia, when Cook went ashore at what is now known as Botany Bay. Endeavour then sailed north along the Australian coast. She narrowly avoided disaster after running aground on the Great Barrier Reef, and Cook had to throw her guns overboard to lighten her. He then beached her on the mainland for seven weeks to permit rudimentary repairs to her hull. On 10 October 1770, she limped into port in Batavia (now named Jakarta) in the Dutch East Indies for more substantial repairs, her crew sworn to secrecy about the lands they had visited. She resumed her westward journey on 26 December, rounded the Cape of Good Hope on 13 March 1771, and reached the English port of Dover on 12 July, having been at sea for nearly three years.</p><br>
<p>Largely forgotten after her epic voyage, Endeavour spent the next three years sailing to and from the Falkland Islands. Sold into private hands in 1775, and later renamed as Lord Sandwich, she was hired as a British troop transport during the American War of Independence and was scuttled in a blockade of Narragansett Bay, Rhode Island, in 1778. her wreck had not been precisely located but was thought to be one of a cluster of five in Newport Harbor, and searching continued. Relics, including six of her cannon and an anchor, are displayed at maritime museums worldwide. A replica of Endeavour was launched in 1994 and is berthed alongside the Australian National Maritime Museum in Sydney Harbour. The US space shuttle Endeavour is named after the ship and she is depicted on the New Zealand fifty-cent coin.</p><br>
<h2>Crew</h2><br>
<p>Captain:</p><br>
<p>James Cook</p><br>
<p>Lieutenants:</p><br>
<p>Zachary Hicks,</p><br>
<p>John Gore,</p><br>
<p>Nicholas Elliott,</p><br>
<p>Alasdair Davidson</p><br>
<p>Midshipmen:</p><br>
<p>Charles Clerke,</p><br>
<p>William Harvey,</p><br>
<p>James Magra,</p><br>
<p>Patrick Saunders,</p><br>
<p>John Bootie,</p><br>
<p>Jonathan Monkhouse</p><br>
<p>Ship masters:</p><br>
<p>Robert Molyneux,</p><br>
<p>Sebastien Caron</p><br>
<p>Boatswain:</p><br>
<p>John Gathrey</p><br>
<p>Quartermasters:</p><br>
<p>Alexander Weir,</p><br>
<p>Samuel Evans</p><br>
<p>Carpenter:</p><br>
<p>John Satterley,</p><br>
<p>Sailmakers:</p><br>
<p>John Ravenhill,</p><br>
<p>Richard Parkhill</p><br>
<p>Gunners:</p><br>
<p>Stephen Forwood,</p><br>
<p>William Tree</p><br>
<p>Cook:</p><br>
<p>John Thompson</p><br>
<p>Surgeon:</p><br>
<p>William Monkhouse</p><br>
<p>i/c Marines:</p><br>
<p>John Edgcumbe</p><br>
<p>Astronomer:</p><br>
<p>Charles Green</p><br>
<p>Naturalists:</p><br>
<p>Joseph Banks,</p><br>
<p>Daniel Solander,</p><br>
<p>Hermann Sporing</p><br>
<p>Artists:</p><br>
<p>Sydney Parkinson,</p><br>
<p>Alexander Buchan</p><br>
<h2>Construction</h2><br>
<p>Endeavour was originally the merchant collier Earl of Pembroke, built by Thomas Fishburn for Thomas Millner, launched in June 1764 from the coal and whaling port of Whitby in North Yorkshire,</p><br>
<p>A flat-bottomed design made her well-suited to sailing in shallow waters and allowed her to be beached for loading and unloading of cargo and for basic repairs without requiring a dry dock. Her hull, internal floors, and futtocks were built from traditional white oak, her keel and stern post from elm, and her masts from pine and fir. Plans of the ship also show a double keelson to lock the keel, floors and frames in place.</p><br>
<p>Some doubt exists about the height of her standing masts (excludes top and gallant masts), as surviving diagrams of Endeavour depict the body of the vessel only, and not the mast plan.) 69 and, respectively from an annotation on one surviving ship plan National Maritime Museum in Greenwich NMM ZAZ6594 which records these lengths has the mizzen as "16 yards 29 inches" ( m).</p><br>
<p>A more recent critical review of contemporary sources doesn&#39;t require a supposed typo in 1771 to explain this shorter measurement for the mizzen whilst at the same time offers supporting evidence of its cap being at the taller supposed normal height. Sydney Parkinson&#39;s sketches and paintings of Cooks Bark Endeavour along with the 1771 Woolwich Yard Bark Endeavour spar measurements National Maritime Museum in Greenwich NMM ZAZ6594, and other contemporary sources suggest that the shorter mizzen mast was not stepped in the hold/keelson, but instead was stepped in the lower deck 10 ft above this as was sometimes done. This would bring its standing height at the cap to within a supposed normal height of around 8– 9 ft below the main mast cap and approx 5.5 ft below the foremast cap when comparing the heights of the standing mast tops (excludes top and gallant masts) from the level of the water line. Whereas the shorter mizzen stepped in the hold on the keelson instead of the lower deck would make the standing mizzen cap 18 ft below the main mast cap which is clearly not the case when critically examining Sydney Parkinson&#39;s drawings and the contemporary painting titled HMS Endeavour off the coast of New Holland, by Samuel Atkins c. 1794 at the top of this page. Zooming this painting also reveals that the position of the mizzen channel is forward to inline with the mast which it is when looking at the angle of the mizzen chainplates on the original as fitted draught NMM ZAZ7844. Using these mizzen chainplate angles from this as fitted draught it is possible to extrapolate where the top of the standing mast could be and combined with the similar shroud angles Sydney Parkinson drew in his sketch of the larboard quarter of Endeavour support this theory of the shorter standing mizzen stepped in the lower deck which would make its standing cap 10 foot higher than if stepped in the hold.</p><br>
<p>The replica standing mizzen is built to this shorter measurement and stepped in the hold on the keelson, as is the model in the National Maritime Museum in Greenwich. There is a difference between the height of the mizzen fore-and-aft spar in the contemporary painting of Earl of Pembroke before the naval refit of 1768 by Luny (below) and its position on the replica in the photographs, compared to the height of the lowest spars on the fore and mainmasts.</p><br>
<h2>Purchase and refit by the Admiralty</h2><br>
<p>On 16 February 1768, the Royal Society petitioned King George III to finance a scientific expedition to the Pacific to study and observe the 1769 transit of Venus across the sun. Royal approval was granted for the expedition, and the Admiralty elected to combine the scientific voyage with a confidential mission to search the south Pacific for signs of the postulated continent Terra Australis Incognita (or "unknown southern land").</p><br>
<p>The Royal Society suggested command be given to Scottish geographer Alexander Dalrymple, whose acceptance was conditional on a brevet commission as a captain in the Royal Navy. However, First Lord of the Admiralty Edward Hawke refused, going so far as to say he would rather cut off his right hand than give command of a navy vessel to someone not educated as a seaman. In refusing Dalrymple&#39;s command, Hawke was influenced by previous insubordination aboard the sloop in 1698, when naval officers had refused to take orders from civilian commander Dr. Edmond Halley. The impasse was broken when the Admiralty proposed James Cook, a naval officer with a background in mathematics and cartography. Acceptable to both parties, Cook was promoted to Lieutenant and named as commander of the expedition.</p><br>
<p>On 27 May 1768, Cook took command of Earl of Pembroke, valued in March at £2,307. 5s. 6d. but ultimately purchased for £2,840. 10s. 11d. and assigned for use in the Society&#39;s expedition. She was refitted at Deptford on the River Thames for the sum of £2,294, almost the price of the ship itself. The hull was sheathed and caulked to protect against shipworm, and a third internal deck installed to provide cabins, a powder magazine and storerooms. The new cabins provided around 2 m&sup2; of floorspace apiece and were allocated to Cook and the Royal Society representatives: naturalist Joseph Banks, Banks&#39; assistants Daniel Solander and Herman Spöring, astronomer Charles Green, and artists Sydney Parkinson and Alexander Buchan. These cabins encircled the officer&#39;s mess. The Great Cabin at the rear of the deck was designed as a workroom for Cook and the Royal Society. On the rear lower deck, cabins facing on to the mate&#39;s mess were assigned to Lieutenants Zachary Hickes and John Gore, ship&#39;s surgeon William Monkhouse, the gunner Stephen Forwood, ship&#39;s master Robert Molyneux, and the captain&#39;s clerk Richard Orton. The adjoining open mess deck provided sleeping and living quarters for the marines and crew, and additional storage space.</p><br>
<p>A longboat, pinnace and yawl were provided as ship&#39;s boats, though the longboat was rotten and had to be rebuilt and painted with white lead before it could be brought aboard. These were accompanied by two privately owned skiffs, one belonging to the boatswain John Gathrey, and the other to Banks. The ship was also equipped with a set of 28 ft sweeps to allow her to be rowed forward if becalmed or demasted. The refitted vessel was commissioned as His Majesty&#39;s Bark the Endeavour, to distinguish her from the 4-gun cutter .</p><br>
<p>On 21 July 1768, Endeavour sailed to Galleon&#39;s Reach to take on armaments to protect her against potentially hostile Pacific island natives. Ten 4-pounder cannons were brought aboard, six of which were mounted on the upper deck and the remainder stowed in the hold. Twelve swivel guns were also supplied, and fixed to posts along the quarterdeck, sides and bow. The ship departed for Plymouth on 30 July, for provisioning and to board her crew of 85, including 12 Royal Marines. Cook also ordered that twelve tons of pig iron be brought on board as sailing ballast.</p><br>
<h2>Voyage of discovery</h2><br>
<h3>Outward voyage</h3><br>
<p>Endeavour departed Plymouth on 26 August 1768, carrying 94 people and 18 months of provisions. Livestock on board included pigs, poultry, two greyhounds and a milking goat.</p><br>
<p>The first port of call was Funchal in the Madeira Islands, which Endeavour reached on 12 September. The ship was recaulked and painted, and fresh vegetables, beef and water were brought aboard for the next leg of the voyage. While in port, an accident cost the life of master&#39;s mate Robert Weir, who became entangled in the anchor cable and was dragged overboard when the anchor was released. To replace him, Cook shanghaied a sailor from an American sloop anchored nearby.</p><br>
<p>Endeavour then continued south along the coast of Africa and across the Atlantic to South America, arriving in Rio de Janeiro on 13 November 1768. Fresh food and water were brought aboard and the ship departed for Cape Horn, which she reached during stormy weather on 13 January 1769. Attempts to round the Cape over the next two days were unsuccessful, and Endeavour was repeatedly driven back by wind, rain and contrary tides. Cook noted that the seas off the Cape were large enough to regularly submerge the bow of the ship as she rode down from the crests of waves. The crew were sent to collect wood and water, while Banks and his team gathered hundreds of plant specimens from along the icy shore. On 17 January two of Banks&#39; servants died from cold while attempting to return to the ship during a heavy snowstorm.</p><br>
<p>Endeavour resumed her voyage on 21 January 1769, heading west-northwest into warmer weather. She reached Tahiti on 10 April, where she remained for the next three months. The transit of Venus across the Sun occurred on 3 June, and was observed and recorded by astronomer Charles Green from Endeavours deck.</p><br>
<h3>Pacific exploration</h3><br>
<p>The transit observed, Endeavour departed Tahiti on 13 July and headed northwest to allow Cook to survey and name the Society Islands. Landfall was made at Huahine, Raiatea and Borabora, providing opportunities for Cook to claim each of them as British territories. However, an attempt to land the pinnace on the Austral Island of Rurutu was thwarted by rough surf and the rocky shoreline. On 15 August, Endeavour finally turned south to explore the open ocean for Terra Australis Incognita.</p><br>
<p>In October 1769, Endeavour reached the coastline of New Zealand, becoming the first European vessel to do so since Abel Tasman&#39;s Heemskerck in 1642. Endeavour spent the next six months sailing close to shore, while Cook mapped the coastline and concluded that New Zealand comprised two large islands and was not the hoped-for Terra Australis. In March 1770, the longboat from Endeavour carried Cook ashore to allow him to formally proclaim British sovereignty over New Zealand. On his return, Endeavour resumed her voyage westward, her crew sighting the east coast of Australia on 19 April. On 29 April, she became the first European vessel to make landfall on the east coast of Australia, when Cook landed one of the ship&#39;s boats on the southern shore of what is now known as Botany Bay, New South Wales.</p><br>
<h3>Shipwreck</h3><br>
<p>For the next four months, Cook charted the coast of Australia, heading generally northward. Just before 11 pm on 11 June 1770, the ship struck a reef, today called Endeavour Reef, within the Great Barrier Reef system. The sails were immediately taken down, a kedging anchor set and an unsuccessful attempt was made to drag the ship back to open water. The reef Endeavour had struck rose so steeply from the seabed that although the ship was hard aground, Cook measured depths up to 70 ft less than one ship&#39;s length away.</p><br>
<p>Cook then ordered that the ship be lightened to help her float off the reef. Iron and stone ballast, spoiled stores and all but four of the ship&#39;s guns were thrown overboard, and the ship&#39;s drinking water pumped out. but this proved impractical. Every man on board took turns on the pumps, including Cook and Banks.</p><br>
<p>When, by Cook&#39;s reckoning, about 40 to 50 longton of equipment had been thrown overboard, on the next high tide a second unsuccessful attempt was made to pull the ship free. In the afternoon of 12 June, the longboat carried out two large bower anchors, and block and tackle were rigged to the anchor chains to allow another attempt on the evening high tide. The ship had started to take on water through a hole in her hull. Although the leak would certainly increase once off the reef, Cook decided to risk the attempt and at 10:20 pm the ship was floated on the tide and successfully drawn off. The anchors were retrieved, except for one which could not be freed from the seabed and had to be abandoned.</p><br>
<p>As expected the leak increased once the ship was off the reef, and all three working pumps had to be continually manned. A mistake occurred in sounding the depth of water in the hold, when a new man measured the length of a sounding line from the outside plank of the hull where his predecessor had used the top of the cross-beams. The mistake suggested the water depth had increased by about 18 in between soundings, sending a wave of fear through the ship. As soon as the mistake was realised, redoubled efforts kept the pumps ahead of the leak.</p><br>
<p>The prospects if the ship sank were grim. The vessel was 24 mi from shore and the three ship&#39;s boats could not carry the entire crew. Despite this, Joseph Banks noted in his journal the calm efficiency of the crew in the face of danger, contrary to stories he had heard of seamen panicking or refusing orders in such circumstances.</p><br>
<p>Midshipman Jonathon Monkhouse proposed fothering the ship, as he had previously been on a merchant ship which used the technique successfully. He was entrusted with supervising the task, sewing bits of oakum and wool into an old sail, which was then drawn under the ship to allow water pressure to force it into the hole in the hull. The effort succeeded and soon very little water was entering, allowing the crew to stop two of the three pumps.</p><br>
<p>Endeavour then resumed her course northward and parallel to the reef, the crew looking for a safe harbour in which to make repairs. On 13 June, the ship came to a broad watercourse that Cook named the Endeavour River. Cook attempted to enter the river mouth, but strong winds and rain prevented Endeavour from crossing the bar until the morning of 17 June. She grounded briefly on a sand spit but was refloated an hour later and warped into the river proper by early afternoon. The ship was promptly beached on the southern bank and careened to make repairs to the hull. Torn sails and rigging were also replaced and the hull scraped free of barnacles.</p><br>
<p>An examination of the hull showed that a piece of coral the size of a man&#39;s fist had sliced clean through the timbers and then broken off. Surrounded by pieces of oakum from the fother, this coral fragment had helped plug the hole in the hull and preserved the ship from sinking on the reef.</p><br>
<h3>Northward to Batavia</h3><br>
<p>After waiting for the wind, Endeavour resumed her voyage on the afternoon of 5 August 1770, reaching the northernmost point of Cape York Peninsula fifteen days later. On 22 August, Cook was rowed ashore to a small coastal island to proclaim British sovereignty over the eastern Australian mainland. Cook christened his landing place Possession Island, and ceremonial volleys of gunfire from the shore and Endeavours deck marked the occasion.</p><br>
<p>Endeavour then resumed her voyage westward along the coast, picking a path through intermittent shoals and reefs with the help of the pinnace, which was rowed ahead to test the water depth. By 26 August she was out of sight of land, and had entered the open waters of the Torres Strait between Australia and New Guinea, earlier navigated by Luis Váez de Torres in 1606. To keep Endeavours voyages and discoveries secret, Cook confiscated the log books and journals of all on board and ordered them to remain silent about where they had been.</p><br>
<p>After a three-day layover off the island of Savu, Endeavour sailed on to Batavia, the capital of the Dutch East Indies, on 10 October. A day later lightning during a sudden tropical storm struck the ship, but the rudimentary "electric chain" or lightning rod that Cook had ordered rigged to Endeavours mast saved her from serious damage.</p><br>
<p>The ship remained in very poor condition following her grounding on the Great Barrier Reef in June. The ship&#39;s carpenter, John Seetterly, observed that she was "very leaky – makes from twelve to six inches an hour, occasioned by her main keel being wounded in many places, false keel gone from beyond the midships. Wounded on her larbord side where the greatest leak is but I could not come at it for the water." An inspection of the hull revealed that some unrepaired planks were cut through to within ⅛ inch (3 mm). Cook noted it was a "surprise to every one who saw her bottom how we had kept her above water" for the previous three-month voyage across open seas.</p><br>
<p>After riding at anchor for two weeks, Endeavour was heaved out of the water on 9 November and laid on her side for repairs. Some damaged timbers were found to be infested with shipworms, which required careful removal to ensure they did not spread throughout the hull. Broken timbers were replaced and the hull recaulked, scraped of shellfish and marine flora, and repainted. Finally, the rigging and pumps were renewed and fresh stores brought aboard for the return journey to England. Repairs and replenishment were completed by Christmas Day 1770, and the next day Endeavour weighed anchor and set sail westward towards the Indian Ocean.</p><br>
<h3>Return voyage</h3><br>
<p>Though Endeavour was now in good condition, her crew were not. During the ship&#39;s stay in Batavia, all but 10 of the 94 people aboard had been taken ill with malaria and dysentery. By the time Endeavour set sail on 26 December, seven crew members had died and another forty were too sick to attend their duties. Over the following twelve weeks, a further 23 died from disease and were buried at sea, including Spöring, Green, Parkinson, and the ship&#39;s surgeon William Monkhouse.</p><br>
<p>Cook attributed the sickness to polluted drinking water, and ordered that it be purified with lime juice, but this had little effect. Jonathan Monkhouse, who had proposed fothering the ship to save her from sinking on the reef, died on 6 February, followed six days later by ship&#39;s carpenter John Seetterly, whose skilled repair work in Batavia had allowed Endeavour to resume her voyage. The health of the surviving crew members then slowly improved as the month progressed, with the last deaths from disease being three ordinary seamen on 27 February.</p><br>
<p>On 13 March 1771, Endeavour rounded the Cape of Good Hope and made port in Cape Town two days later. Those still sick were taken ashore for treatment. The ship remained in port for four weeks awaiting the recovery of the crew and undergoing minor repairs to her masts. On 15 April, the sick were brought back on board along with ten recruits from Cape Town, and Endeavour resumed her homeward voyage. The English mainland was sighted on 10 July and Endeavour entered the port of Dover two days later.</p><br>
<p>Approximately one month after his return, Cook was promoted to the rank of Commander, and by November 1771 was in receipt of Admiralty Orders for a second expedition, this time aboard HMS Resolution. He was killed during an altercation with Hawaiians at Kealakekua Bay on 14 February 1779.</p><br>
<h2>Later service</h2><br>
<p>While Cook was fêted for his successful voyage, Endeavour was largely forgotten. Within a week of her return to England, she was directed to Woolwich Dockyard for refitting as a naval transport. Under the command of Lieutenant James Gordon she then made three return voyages to the Falkland Islands.</p><br>
<p>The first, with Joseph Irving as sailing master (replaced by John Dykes at Portsmouth due to illness), was to deliver "sufficient provisions to serve 350 men to the end of the year 1772&quot she sailed from Portsmouth on 8 November 1771, but due to terrible weather did not arrive at Port Egmont (the British base in the Falkland Islands) until 1 March. Endeavour sailed from Port Egmont on 4 May in a three-month non-stop voyage until she anchored at Portsmouth.</p><br>
<p>The second voyage was to reduce the garrison and replace HM Sloop Hound, John Burr Commander, with a smaller vessel, namely the 36-ton shallop Penguin, commander Samuel Clayton. She was a collapsible vessel and was no sooner built than taken apart, and the pieces were stowed in Endeavour. Endeavour sailed in November with Hugh Kirkland as the sailing master, and additionally the crew of Penguin, and four ship&#39;s carpenters whose job was to reassemble Penguin on arrival, which was 28 January 1773. On 17 April Endeavour and Hound sailed for England with their crew. One of Penguin&#39;s crew was Bernard Penrose who wrote an account. Samuel Clayton also wrote an account.</p><br>
<p>The third voyage sailed in January 1774 and her purpose was to evacuate the Falklands entirely as Britain was faced with political difficulties from the American Colonies, the French and the Spanish. The government thought that if British ships and troops were engaged in America, Spain might seize the Falklands, capturing the small garrison at Port Egmont and maybe killing some of them - this, it was feared, would trigger an outcry which might topple the government. Endeavour left England in January 1774, and sailed from the Falklands with all the British inhabitants on 23 April, leaving a flag and a plaque.</p><br>
<p>Endeavour was paid off in September 1774, and in March 1775 was sold by the Navy to shipping magnate J. Mather for £645. Mather returned her to sea for at least one commercial voyage to Archangel in Russia.</p><br>
<p>Once the American War of Independence had commenced, the British government needed ships to carry troops and materiel across the Atlantic. In 1775 Mather submitted Endeavour as a transport ship, and she was rejected. Thinking that renaming her would fool Deptford Yard, Mather resubmitted Endeavour under the name Lord Sandwich Lord Sandwich was rejected in no uncertain terms: "Unfit for service. She was sold out Service Called Endeavour Bark refused before". Lord Sandwich then had serious repairs, and on her third submission was accepted and was termed Lord Sandwich 2 as there was already a transport ship called Lord Sandwich.</p><br>
<p>Lord Sandwich 2, master William Author, sailed on 6 May 1776 from Portsmouth in a fleet of 100 vessels, 68 of which were transports, which was under orders to support Howe&#39;s campaign to capture New York. Lord Sandwich 2 carried 206 men mainly of the Hessian du Corps regiment of Hessian mercenaries. The crossing was terrible, and two Hessians who were in the same fleet have left us accounts of the voyage. The scattered fleet assembled at Halifax and then sailed to Sandy Hook where other ships and troops assembled. On 15 August 1776 Lord Sandwich 2 was anchored at Sandy Hook; also assembled there was Adventure (which had sailed with Resolution on Cook&#39;s second voyage), now a storeship, captain John Hallum. Another ship there at that time was HMS Siren, captain Tobias Furneaux, who had commanded Adventure on the second voyage.</p><br>
<p>New York was eventually captured, but Newport, Rhode Island in the hands of the Americans posed a threat as a base for recapturing New York, so in November 1776 a fleet, which included Lord Sandwich 2 carrying Hessian Troops, set out to take Rhode Island, which was taken but not subdued, and Lord Sandwich 2 was needed as a prison ship.</p><br>
<h2>Final resting place</h2><br>
<p>The surrender of Burgoyne&#39;s army at Saratoga, brought France into the war, and in the summer of 1778 a pincer plan was agreed to recapture Newport: the Continental Army would approach overland, and a French Fleet would sail into the harbour. To prevent the latter the British commander, Captain John Brisbane, determined to blockade the bay by sinking surplus vessels at its mouth. Between 3 and 6 August a fleet of Royal Navy and hired craft, including Lord Sandwich 2, were scuttled at various locations in the Bay. Lord Sandwich 2, previously Endeavour, previously Earl of Pembroke, was sunk on 4 August 1778.</p><br>
<p>The owners of the sunken vessels were compensated by the British government for the loss of their ships. The Admiralty valuation for 10 of the sunken vessels recorded that many had been built in Yorkshire, and the details of the Lord Sandwich transport matched those of the former Endeavour including construction in Whitby, a burthen of 368 tons, and re-entry into Navy service on 10 February 1776. In 1834 a letter appeared in the Providence Journal of Rhode Island, drawing attention to the possible presence of the former Endeavour on the seabed of the bay. This was swiftly disputed by the British consul in Rhode Island, who wrote claiming that Endeavour had been bought from Mather by the French in 1790 and renamed Liberté. The consul later admitted he had heard this not from the Admiralty, but as hearsay from the former owners of the French ship. It was later suggested Liberté, which sank off Newport in 1793, was in fact another of Cook&#39;s ships, the former HMS Resolution, or another Endeavour, a naval schooner sold out of service in 1782. A further letter to the Providence Journal stated that a retired English sailor was conducting guided tours of a hulk on the River Thames as late as 1825, claiming that the ship had once been Cook&#39;s Endeavour.</p><br>
<p>In 1991 the Rhode Island Marine Archaeology Project (RIMAP) began research into the identity of the thirteen transports sunk as part of the Newport blockade of 1778, including Lord Sandwich. In 1999 RIMAP discovered documents in the Public Record Office (now called the National Archives) in London confirming that Endeavour had been renamed Lord Sandwich, had served as a troop transport to North America, and had been scuttled at Newport as part of the 1778 fleet of transports.</p><br>
<p>In 1999 a combined research team from RIMAP and the Australian National Maritime Museum examined some known wrecks in the harbour and in 2000, RIMAP and the ANMM examined a site that appears to be one of the blockade vessels, partly covered by a separate wreck of a 20th-century barge. The older remains were those of a wooden vessel of approximately the same size, and possibly a similar design and materials as Lord Sandwich ex Endeavour. Confirmation that Cook&#39;s former ship had indeed been in Newport Harbor sparked considerable media and public interest in confirming her location. However, further mapping showed eight other 18th-century wrecks in Newport Harbor, some with features and conditions also consistent with Endeavour. In 2006 RIMAP announced that the wrecks were unlikely to be raised. In 2016 RIMAP concluded that there was a probability of 80 to 100% that the wreck of Endeavour was still in Newport Harbor, probably one of a cluster of five wrecks on the seafloor, and planned to investigate the ships and their artifacts further. They were seeking funds to build facilities for handling and storing recovered objects.</p><br>
<h2>''Endeavour'' relics and legacy</h2><br>
<p>In addition to the search for the remains of the ship herself, there was considerable Australian interest in locating relics of the ship&#39;s south Pacific voyage. In 1886, the Working Men&#39;s Progress Association of Cooktown sought to recover the six cannons thrown overboard when Endeavour grounded on the Great Barrier Reef. A £300 reward was offered for anyone who could locate and recover the guns, but searches that year and the next were fruitless and the money went unclaimed. Remains of equipment left at Endeavour River were discovered in around 1900, and in 1913 the crew of a merchant steamer erroneously claimed to have recovered an Endeavour cannon from shallow water near the Reef.</p><br>
<p>In 1937, a small part of Endeavours keel was gifted to the Australian Government by philanthropist Charles Wakefield in his capacity as president of the Admiral Arthur Phillip Memorial. Australian Prime Minister Joseph Lyons described the section of keel as "intimately associated with the discovery and foundation of Australia".</p><br>
<p>Searches were resumed for the lost Endeavour Reef cannons, but expeditions in 1966, 1967, and 1968 were unsuccessful. using a sophisticated magnetometer to locate the cannons, a quantity of iron ballast and the abandoned bower anchor. Conservation work on the cannons was undertaken by the Australian National Maritime Museum, after which two of the cannons were displayed at its headquarters in Sydney&#39;s Darling Harbour, and eventually put on display at Botany Bay and the National Museum of Australia in Canberra (with a replica remaining at the museum). A third cannon and the bower anchor were displayed at the James Cook Museum in Cooktown, with the remaining three at the National Maritime Museum in London, the Academy of Natural Sciences in Philadelphia, and the Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa in Wellington.</p><br>
<p>Endeavours Pacific voyage was further commemorated in the use of her image on the reverse of the New Zealand fifty-cent coin, and in the naming of the Space Shuttle Endeavour in 1989.</p><br>
<h2>Replica vessels</h2><br>
<p>In January 1988, to commemorate the Australian Bicentenary of European settlement in Australia, work began in Fremantle, Western Australia, on a replica of Endeavour. Financial difficulties delayed completion until December 1993, and the vessel was not commissioned until April 1994. The replica vessel commenced her maiden voyage in October of that year, sailing to Sydney Harbour and then following Cook&#39;s path from Botany Bay northward to Cooktown. and June 2002. Footage of waves shot while rounding Cape Horn on this voyage was later used in digitally composited scenes in the 2003 film Master and Commander: The Far Side of the World.</p><br>
<p>The replica Endeavour visited various European ports before undertaking her final ocean voyage from Whitehaven to Sydney Harbour on 8 November 2004. Her arrival in Sydney was delayed when she ran aground in Botany Bay, a short distance from the point where Cook first set foot in Australia 235 years earlier. The replica Endeavour finally entered Sydney Harbour on 17 April 2005, having travelled 170,000 nmi, including twice around the world. Ownership of the replica was transferred to the Australian National Maritime Museum in 2005 for permanent service as a museum ship in Sydney&#39;s Darling Harbour.</p><br>
<p>A second full-size replica of Endeavour is berthed on the River Tees in Stockton-on-Tees. While this reflects the external dimensions of Cook&#39;s vessel, this replica was constructed with a steel rather than a timber frame, has one less internal deck than the original, and is not designed to be put to sea.</p><br>
<p>The Russell Museum, in the Bay of Islands, New Zealand, has a seagoing one-fifth scale replica of Endeavour. It was built in Auckland; during 1969 and 1970 it sailed some 15,000 mi in New Zealand and Australia.</p><br>
<p>At Whitby the "Bark Endeavour Whitby" is a scaled-down replica of the original ship. It relies on engines for propulsion and is a little less than half the size of the original. Trips for tourists take them along the coast to Sandsend.</p><br>
<p>Deception Island is an island in the South Shetland Islands archipelago, with one of the safest harbours in Antarctica. This island is the caldera of an active volcano, which seriously damaged local scientific stations in 1967 and 1969. The island previously held a whaling station; it is now a tourist destination and scientific outpost, with Argentine and Spanish research bases. While various countries have asserted sovereignty, it is still administered under the Antarctic Treaty System.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The first authenticated sighting of Deception Island was by the British sealers William Smith and Edward Bransfield from the brig Williams in January 1820; it was first visited and explored by the American sealer Nathaniel Palmer on the sloop Hero the following summer, on 15 November 1820. He remained for two days, exploring the central bay.</p><br>
<p>Palmer named it "Deception Island" on account of its outward deceptive appearance as a normal island, when Neptune&#39;s Bellows revealed it rather to be a ring around a flooded caldera.</p><br>
<h3>Whaling and sealing</h3><br>
<p>Over the next few years, Deception became a focal point of the short-lived fur sealing industry in the South Shetlands; the industry had begun with a handful of ships in the 1819–20 summer season, rising to nearly a hundred in 1821–22. While the island did not have a large seal population, it was a perfect natural harbour, mostly free from ice and winds, and a convenient rendezvous point. It is likely that some men lived ashore in tents or shacks for short periods during the summer, though no archaeological or documentary evidence survives to confirm this. Massive overhunting meant that the fur seals became almost extinct in the South Shetlands within a few years, and the sealing industry collapsed as quickly as it had begun; by around 1825 Deception was again abandoned.</p><br>
<p>In 1829, the British Naval Expedition to the South Atlantic under the command of Captain Henry Foster in stopped at Deception. The expedition conducted a topographic survey and scientific experiments, particularly pendulum and magnetic observations. A watercolour made by Lieutenant Kendall of the Chanticleer during the visit may be the first image made of the island. A subsequent visit by the American elephant-sealer Ohio in 1842 reported the first recorded volcanic activity, with the southern shore "in flames".</p><br>
<p>The second phase of human activity at Deception began in the early twentieth century. In 1904, an active whaling industry was established at South Georgia, taking advantage of new technology and an almost untouched population of whales to make rapid profits. It spread south into the South Shetland Islands, where the lack of shore-based infrastructure meant that the whales had to be towed to moored factory ships for processing; these needed a sheltered anchorage and a plentiful supply of fresh water, both of which could be found at Deception. In 1906, the Norwegian-Chilean whaling company Sociedad Ballenera de Magallanes started using Whalers Bay as a base for a single ship, the Gobernador Bories.</p><br>
<p>Other whalers followed, with several hundred men resident at Deception during the Antarctic summers and as many as thirteen ships operating in peak years. In 1908, the British government formally declared the island to be part of the Falkland Islands Dependencies and thus under British control, establishing postal services as well as appointing a magistrate and customs officer for the island. The magistrate would ensure that whaling companies were paying appropriate licence fees to the Falklands government as well as ensuring that catch quotas were adhered to. A cemetery was built in 1908, a radio station in 1912, a hand operated railway also in 1912, and a small permanent magistrate&#39;s house in 1914. These were not the only constructions; as the factory ships of the period were only able to strip the blubber from whales and could not use the carcasses, a permanent on-shore station was established by the Norwegian company Hvalfangerselskabet Hektor A/S in 1912 – it was estimated that up to 40% of the available oil was being wasted by the ship-based system. This was the only successful shore-based industry ever to operate in Antarctica, reaping high profits in its first years. A number of exploring expeditions visited Deception during these years, including the Wilkins-Hearst expedition of 1928, when a Lockheed Vega was flown from a beach airstrip on the first successful flights in Antarctica.</p><br>
<p>The development of pelagic whaling in the 1920s, where factory ships fitted with a slipway could tow aboard entire whales for processing, meant that whaling companies were no longer tied to sheltered anchorages. A boom in pelagic Antarctic whaling followed, with companies now free to ignore quotas and escape the costs of licences. This rapidly led to overproduction of oil and a collapse in the market, and the less profitable and more heavily regulated shore-based companies had trouble competing. In early 1931, the Hektor factory finally ceased operation, ending commercial whaling at the island entirely.</p><br>
<h3>Scientific research</h3><br>
<p>Deception remained uninhabited for a decade but was revisited in 1941 by the British auxiliary warship HMS Queen of Bermuda, which destroyed the oil tanks and some remaining supplies in order to ensure it could not be used as a German supply base. In 1942, an Argentinean party aboard the Primero de Mayo visited and left signs and painted flags declaring the site Argentinean territory; the following year, a British party with returned to remove the signs. The island was finally reoccupied in early 1944 by a party of men from Operation Tabarin, a British expedition, who established a permanent scientific base named as Station B. This was occupied until 5 December 1967, when an eruption forced a temporary withdrawal. It was used again between 4 December 1968 and 23 February 1969, when further volcanic activity caused it to be abandoned.</p><br>
<p>In 1955, Chile inaugurated its station Pedro Aguirre Cerda at Pendulum Cove, with a refuge site at, to increase the Chilean presence in the sector claimed by that nation. The same year, the Falkland Islands and Dependencies Aerial Survey Expedition was established at Deception to help survey the Antarctic Peninsula, operating aircraft from Hunting Aerosurveys Ltd.</p><br>
<p>In 1961, Argentinas president Arturo Frondizi visited the island to show his countrys interest. Regular visits were made by other countries operating in the Antarctic, including the 1964 visit of the US Coast Guard icebreaker, which ran aground inside the harbour.</p><br>
<p>However, the volcano returned to activity in the late 1960s, destroying the existing scientific stations. Both British and Chilean stations were demolished, and the island was abandoned for several years. The final major eruption was reported by the Russian Bellingshausen station on King George Island and the Chilean station Arturo Pratt on Greenwich Island; both stations experienced major falls of ash on 13 August 1970.</p><br>
<p>In 2000, there were two summer-only scientific stations, the Spanish Gabriel de Castilla Base and the Argentinian Decepción Station.</p><br>
<p>Remains of previous structures at Whalers Bay include rusting boilers and tanks, an aircraft hangar and the British scientific station house (Biscoe House), with the middle torn out by the 1969 mudflows. A bright-orange derelict airplane fuselage, which is that of a de Havilland Canada DHC-3 Otter that belonged to the Royal Air Force, was recovered in 2004. There are plans to restore the airplane and return it to the island.</p><br>
<p>The Russian cruise ship ran aground at Deception Island on 27 November 2006. She was towed off by the Spanish Navy icebreaker, Las Palmas and later became a ghost ship in the North Atlantic.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The island is approximately circular with a diameter of about 12 km. A peak on the east side of the island, Mount Pond, has an elevation of 542 m, and over half the island is covered by glaciers. The centre of the island is a caldera formed in a huge (VEI-6) eruption which has been flooded by the sea to form a large bay, now called Port Foster, about 9 km long and 6 km wide. The bay has a narrow entrance, just 230 m wide, called Neptunes Bellows. Adding to the hazard is Ravn Rock, which lies 2.5 m below the water in the middle of the channel. Just inside Neptunes Bellows lies the cove Whalers Bay, which is bordered by a large black sand beach.</p><br>
<p>Several maars line the inside rim of the caldera, with some containing crater lakes (including one named Crater Lake). Others form bays within the harbour, such as the 1 km wide Whalers Bay. Other features of the island include Mount Achala, Primero de Mayo Bay, Sewing-Machine Needles, Telefon Bay and Telefon Ridge.</p><br>
<p>A 2016 study on Ardley Island, 120km to the northeast, examined lake guano sediments and studied penguin population dynamics over 7,000 years. Three of five population growth phases were terminated by a sudden crash, due to volcanic eruptions from the active volcano of Deception Island.</p><br>
<h2>Environment</h2><br>
<p>Deception Island has become a popular tourist stop in Antarctica because of its several colonies of chinstrap penguins, as well as the novel possibility of making a warm bath by digging into the sands of the beach. Mount Flora is the first site in Antarctica where fossilized plants were discovered.</p><br>
<p>After the Norwegian Coastal Cruise Liner ran aground off the coast of Deception Island on 30 January 2007, fuel from the ship washed into a bay. Ecological damage has not yet been determined. On 4 February 2007 the Spanish Gabriel de Castilla research station on Deception Island reported that water and sand tests were clean and that they had not found signs of the oil, estimated as 500 to 750 L of light diesel.</p><br>
<p>Deception Island exhibits some wildly varying microclimates. Some water temperatures reach 70 &deg;C. Near volcanic areas, the air can be as hot as 40 &deg;C.</p><br>
<h3>Antarctic Specially Protected Areas</h3><br>
<p>Some 11 terrestrial sites have been collectively designated an Antarctic Specially Protected Area (ASPA 140), primarily for their botanic and ecological values, because the island has the greatest number of rare plant species of any place in the Antarctic. This is largely due to frequent volcanic activity creating new substrates for plant colonisation:</p><br>
<p>Collins Point (Site A) contains good examples of long-established vegetation, with high species diversity and several rarities.</p><br>
<p>Crater Lake (Site B) has a scoria-covered lava tongue with a diverse cryptogamic flora, and exceptional development of turf-forming mosses.</p><br>
<p>An unnamed hill at the southern end of Fumarole Bay (Site C) has several rare species of moss which have colonised the heated soil crust close to a line of volcanic vents.</p><br>
<p>Fumarole Bay (Site D) is geologically complex with the most diverse flora on the island.</p><br>
<p>West Stonethrow Ridge (Site E) supports several rare mosses, liverworts and lichens.</p><br>
<p>Telefon Bay (Site F) has all its surfaces dating from 1967, thus allowing accurate monitoring of colonisation by plants and animals.</p><br>
<p>Pendulum Cove (Site G) is another known-age site being colonised by mosses and lichens.</p><br>
<p>Mount Pond (Site H) contains exceptional moss, liverwort and lichen communities.</p><br>
<p>Perchue Cone (Site J) is an ash and cinder cone with rare mosses.</p><br>
<p>Ronald Hill to Kroner Lake (Site K) is another known-age site being colonised by numerous cryptogam species, and with a unique algal community on the lake shore.</p><br>
<p>South East Point (Site L) supports the most extensive population of Antarctic pearlwort known in the Antarctic region.</p><br>
<p>In addition, two marine sites in Port Foster have collectively been designated Antarctic Specially Protected Area 145, to protect their benthic communities.</p><br>
<h3>Important Bird Area</h3><br>
<p>Baily Head, a prominent headland forming the easternmost extremity of the island, has been identified as an Important Bird Area (IBA) by BirdLife International because it supports a very large breeding colony of chinstrap penguins (100,000 pairs). The 78 ha IBA comprises the ice-free headland and about 800 m of beach on either side of it. Other birds known to nest at the site include brown skuas, Cape petrels and snowy sheathbills.</p><br>
<p>Madura is an Indonesian island off the northeastern coast of Java. The island comprises an area of approximately 4,078.67 km² . Madura is administered as part of the East Java province. It is separated from Java by the narrow Strait of Madura. The administered area has a density of 702 people per km², while that of the island itself  is higher at 817/km².</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>In 1624, Sultan Agung of Mataram conquered Madura and the island&#39;s government was brought under the Cakraningrats, a single princely line. The Cakrangingrat family opposed Central Javanese rule and often conquered large parts of Mataram.</p><br>
<p>Following the First Javanese War of Succession between Amangkurat III and his uncle, Pangeran Puger, the Dutch gained control of the eastern half of Madura in 1705. Dutch recognition of Puger was influenced by the lord of West Madura, Cakraningrat II who is thought to have supported Puger&#39;s claims in the hope that a new war in central Java would provide the Madurese with a chance to interfere. However, while Amangkurat was arrested and exiled to Ceylon, Puger took the title of Pakubuwono I and signed a treaty with the Dutch that granted them East Madura.</p><br>
<p>The Cakraningrats agreed to help the Dutch quash the 1740 rebellion in Central Java after the Chinese massacre in 1740. In a 1743 treaty with the Dutch, Pakubuwono I ceded full sovereignty of Madura to the Dutch, which was contested by Cakraningrat IV. Cakraningrat fled to Banjarmasin, took refuge with the English, was robbed and betrayed by the sultan, and captured by the Dutch and exiled to the Cape of Good Hope.</p><br>
<p>The Dutch continued Madura&#39;s administrative divisions of four states each with their own regent. The island was initially important as a source of colonial troops and in the second half of the nineteenth century it became the main source of salt for Dutch-controlled territories in the archipelago.</p><br>
<h2>Demography</h2><br>
<p>Madura has a population of about 3.65 million, most of whom are ethnically Madurese. The main language of Madura is Madurese, one of a family of Austronesian languages, which is also spoken in part of eastern Java and on many of the 66 outlying islands.</p><br>
<p>The Madurese are a large ethnic population in Indonesia, numbering around 7 million inhabitants. They come from the island of Madura as well as surrounding islands, such as Gili Raja, Sapudi, Raas, and the Kangean Islands. In addition, many Madurese live in the eastern part of East Java, commonly called the "Horseshoe", from Pasuruan to the north of Banyuwangi. Madurese are found in Situbondo and Bondowoso, and east of Probolinggo, Jember, and a few at most who speak Javanese, including North Surabaya, as well as some of Malang.</p><br>
<p>Madura has a Sunni Muslim majority and a large Shia minority. However, since 2012, interfaith discord has escalated into violence, with many Shia villages around the city of Sampang being attacked and the population fleeing their homes for government refugee centers. The United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs has provided details of such attacks in 2013.</p><br>
<h2>Administrative divisions</h2><br>
<p>Madura Island is part of East Java province and is divided into the following four regencies, listed from west to east:</p><br>
<p>Note: Sumenep Regency includes many offshore islands - notably the Kangean Islands (487 square kilometers) to the east of Madura, the smaller Sapudi Islands lying between Madura and the Kangean Islands, and the small Masalembu Islands (40.85 square kilometers) to the north (between Madura and Kalimantan). The mainland (i.e. the area on Madura Island itself) covers 1,146.93 square kilometers (751,833 inhabitants in 2010) consisting of 17 districts, while the islands are 946.53 square kilometers (290,479 people in 2010), comprising 9 districts, of 128 islands, 46 inhabited.</p><br>
<p>Source: 2014 estimates</p><br>
<h2>Economy</h2><br>
<p>On the whole, Madura is one of the poorest regions of the East Java province. Unlike Java, the soil is not fertile enough to make it a major agricultural producer. Limited economic opportunities have led to chronic unemployment and poverty. These factors have led to long-term emigration from the island, such that most ethnically Madurese people do not now live on Madura. People from Madura were some of the most numerous participants in government transmigration programs, moving to other parts of Indonesia.</p><br>
<p>Subsistence agriculture is a mainstay of the economy. Maize is a key subsistence crop, on islands many small landholdings. Cattle-raising is also a critical part of the agricultural economy, providing extra income to peasant farmer families, in addition to being the basis for Maduras famous bull-racing competitions. Small-scale fishing is also important to the subsistence economy.</p><br>
<p>Among export industries, tobacco farming is a major contributor to the islands economy. Maduras soil, while unable to support many food crops, helps make the island an important producer of tobacco and cloves for the domestic kretek (clove cigarette) industry. Since the Dutch era, the island has also been a major producer and exporter of salt.</p><br>
<p>Bangkalan, on the western end of the island, has industrialized substantially since the 1980s. This region is within a short ferry ride of Surabaya, Indonesia&#39;s second-largest city, and hence has gained a role as a suburb for commuters to Surabaya, and as a location for industry and services that need to be near the city.</p><br>
<p>The Surabaya-Madura (Suramadu) Bridge, opened 2009, is expected to further increase the Bangkalan area&#39;s interaction with the regional economy.</p><br>
<h2>Culture</h2><br>
<h3>Bull racing</h3><br>
<p>Madura is famous for its bull-racing competition (called karapan sapi) where a jockey, usually a young boy, rides a simple wooden sled pulled by a pair of bulls over a course of about 100 meters in ten to fifteen seconds.</p><br>
<h3>Music and theater</h3><br>
<p>Several forms of music and theater are popular on Madura, particularly among poorer people for whom they provide an inexpensive form of entertainment and community-building. The topeng theater, which involves masked performances of classical stories such as the Ramayana and Mahabharata, is the Madurese performance art best known outside the island, due to its role as a representative Madurese art form at exhibitions of regional cultures from all over Indonesia. However, performances of it are rare on Madura, and are generally restricted to entertainment at large official functions. The less formal loddrok theater, where performers do not wear masks and perform a wider range of themes, is more popular on the island.</p><br>
<p>The gamelan orchestra, best known as a classical Javanese instrument, is also played on Madura, where several of the former royal courts, such as at Bangkalan and Sumenep, possess elaborate gamelans. Tongtong music, more exclusive to Madura, is played on several wooden or bamboo drums, and often accompanies bull-racing competitions.</p><br>
<h3>Vessels</h3><br>
<p>The Madurese are considered to be excellent sailors. Madurese vessels loaded with cargoes of wood from other islands, like Borneo, used to ply their trade between Indonesia and Singapore. Traditional vessels of Madura, include the golekan and the leti-leti (or leteh-leteh).</p><br>
<p>Western Ghats  is a mountain range that runs parallel to the western coast of the Indian peninsula, located entirely in India. It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site and is one of the eight "hottest hot-spots" of biological diversity in the world. It is sometimes called the Great Escarpment of India. The range runs north to south along the western edge of the Deccan Plateau, and separates the plateau from a narrow coastal plain, called Konkan, along the Arabian Sea. A total of thirty-nine properties including national parks, wildlife sanctuaries and reserve forests were designated as world heritage sites - twenty in Kerala, ten in Karnataka, five in Tamil Nadu and four in Maharashtra.</p><br>
<p>The range starts near the border of Gujarat and Maharashtra, south of the Tapti river, and runs approximately 1,600 km through the states of Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu ending at Swamithoppe, near Kanyakumari, at the southern tip of India. These hills cover 160,000 km&sup2; and form the catchment area for complex riverine drainage systems that drain almost 40% of India. The Western Ghats block southwest monsoon winds from reaching the Deccan Plateau. The average elevation is around 1,200 m.</p><br>
<p>The area is one of the world&#39;s ten "Hottest biodiversity hotspots" and has over 7,402 species of flowering plants, 1,814 species of non-flowering plants, 139 mammal species, 508 bird species, 179 amphibian species, 6,000 insects species and 290 freshwater fish species; it is likely that many undiscovered species live in the Western Ghats. At least 325 globally threatened species occur in the Western Ghats.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>The Western Ghats are the mountainous faulted and eroded edge of the Deccan Plateau. Geologic evidence indicates that they were formed during the break-up of the supercontinent of Gondwana some 150 million years ago. Geophysical evidence indicates that the west coast of India came into being somewhere around 100 to 80 mya after it broke away from Madagascar. After the break-up, the western coast of India would have appeared as an abrupt cliff some 1,000 m in elevation. Basalt is the predominant rock found in the hills reaching a thickness of 3 km. Other rock types found are charnockites, granite gneiss, khondalites, leptynites, metamorphic gneisses with detached occurrences of crystalline limestone, iron ore, dolerites and anorthosites. Residual laterite and bauxite ores are also found in the southern hills.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The Western Ghats extend from the Satpura Range in the north, stretching from Gujarat to Tamil Nadu. It traverses south past the states of Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka and Kerala. Major gaps in the range are the Goa Gap, between the Maharashtra and Karnataka sections, and the Palghat Gap on the Tamil Nadu and Kerala border between the Nilgiri Hills and the Anaimalai Hills. The mountains intercept the rain-bearing westerly monsoon winds, and are consequently an area of high rainfall, particularly on their western side. The dense forests also contribute to the precipitation of the area by acting as a substrate for condensation of moist rising orographic winds from the sea, and releasing much of the moisture back into the air via transpiration, allowing it to later condense and fall again as rain.</p><br>
<p>The northern portion of the narrow coastal plain between the Western Ghats and the Arabian Sea is known as the Konkan, the central portion is called Kanara and the southern portion is called Malabar. The foothill region east of the Ghats in Maharashtra is known as Desh, while the eastern foothills of the central Karnataka state is known as Malenadu. The range is known as Sahyadri in Maharashtra and Karnataka. The Western Ghats meets the Eastern Ghats at Nilgiris in northwestern Tamil Nadu. Nilgiris connects Biligiriranga Hills in southeastern Karnataka with the Shevaroys and Tirumala hills. South of the Palghat Gap are the Anamala Hills, located in western Tamil Nadu and Kerala with smaller ranges further south, including the Cardamom Hills, then Aryankavu pass, Aralvaimozhi pass near Kanyakumari. In the southern part of the range is Anamudi (2,695 m), the highest peak in Western Ghats.</p><br>
<h3>Peaks</h3><br>
<p>Western Ghats has many peaks that rise above 2,000 meters with Anamudi(2,695 m) being the highest peak.</p><br>
<h3>Water bodies</h3><br>
<p>The Western Ghats form one of the four watersheds of India, feeding the perennial rivers of India. The major river systems originating in the Western Ghats include Godavari, Kaveri, Krishna, Thamiraparani and Tungabhadra. Majority of streams draining the Western Ghats join these rivers and carry large volume of water during the monsoon months. These rivers flow to the east due to the gradient of the land and drain out into the Bay of Bengal. Major tributaries include Kali, Bhadra, Bhavani, Bhima, Malaprabha, Ghataprabha, Hemavathi and Kabini. Periyar, Bharathappuzha, Netravati, Sharavathi, Mandovi and Zuari rivers flow westwards towards the Western Ghats, draining into the Arabian Sea and are fast-moving, owing to the steeper gradient.</p><br>
<p>The rivers have been dammed for hydroelectric and irrigation purposes with major reservoirs spread across the states. The reservoirs are important for their commercial and sport fisheries of rainbow trout, mahseer and common carp. There are about 50 major dams along the length of the Western Ghats. Most notable of these projects are the Koyna in Maharashtra, Linganmakki and Sivasamudram in Karnataka, Mettur and Pykara in Tamil Nadu, Parambikulam and Idukki in Kerala</p><br>
<p>During the monsoon season, numerous streams fed by incessant rain drain off the mountain sides leading to numerous waterfalls. Major waterfalls include Dudhsagar, Unchalli,</p><br>
<p>Sathodi, Magod, Hogenakkal, Jog, Kunchikal, Sivasamudram, Meenmutty Falls, Athirappilly Falls. Talakaveri is the source of the river Kaveri and the Kuduremukha range is the source of the Tungabhadra. Western Ghats have several man-made lakes and reservoirs with major lakes at Ooty (34 hectare) in Nilgiris, Kodaikanal (26 hectare) and Berijam in Palani Hills, Pookode lake, Devikulam (6 hectare) and Letchmi (2 hectare) in Kerala.</p><br>
<h2>Climate</h2><br>
<p>Climate in the Western Ghats varies with altitudinal gradation and distance from the equator. The climate is humid and tropical in the lower reaches tempered by the proximity to the sea. Elevations of 1,500 m and above in the north and 2,000 m and above in the south have a more temperate climate. Average annual temperature is around 15 &deg;C. In some parts frost is common, and temperatures touch the freezing point during the winter months. Mean temperature range from 20 &deg;C in the south to 24 &deg;C in the north. It has also been observed that the coldest periods in the South Western Ghats coincide with the wettest.</p><br>
<p>During the monsoon season between June and September, the unbroken Western Ghats chain acts as a barrier to the moisture laden clouds. The heavy, eastward-moving rain-bearing clouds are forced to rise and in the process deposit most of their rain on the windward side. Rainfall in this region averages 300 cm to 400 cm with localised extremes touching 900 cm. The eastern region of the Western Ghats which lie in the rain shadow, receive far less rainfall of about 100 cm resulting in an average rainfall of 250 cm across regions. The total amount of rain does not depend on the spread of the area with areas in northern Maharashtra receiving heavy rainfall followed by long dry spells, while regions closer to the equator receive less annual rainfall and have rain spells lasting several months in a year.</p><br>
<h2>Ecoregions</h2><br>
<p>The Western Ghats are home to four tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forest ecoregions – the North Western Ghats moist deciduous forests, North Western Ghats montane rain forests, South Western Ghats moist deciduous forests, and South Western Ghats montane rain forests. The northern portion of the range is generally drier than the southern portion, and at lower elevations makes up the North Western Ghats moist deciduous forests ecoregion, with mostly deciduous forests made up predominantly of teak. Above 1,000 meters elevation are the cooler and wetter North Western Ghats montane rain forests, whose evergreen forests are characterised by trees of family Lauraceae.</p><br>
<p>The evergreen forests in Wayanad mark the transition zone between the northern and southern ecologic regions of the Western Ghats. The southern ecologic regions are generally wetter and more species-rich. At lower elevations are the South Western Ghats moist deciduous forests, with Cullenia the characteristic tree genus, accompanied by teak, dipterocarps, and other trees. The moist forests transition to the drier South Deccan Plateau dry deciduous forests, which lie in its rain shadow to the east. Above 1,000 meters are the South Western Ghats montane rain forests, also cooler and wetter than the surrounding lowland forests, and dominated by evergreen trees, although some montane grasslands and stunted forests can be found at the highest elevations. The South Western Ghats montane rain forests are the most species-rich ecologic region in peninsular India; eighty percent of the flowering plant species of the entire Western Ghats range are found in this ecologic region.</p><br>
<h2>Biodiversity protection</h2><br>
<p>Historically the Western Ghats were well-covered in dense forests that provided wild foods and natural habitats for native tribal people. Its inaccessibility made it difficult for people from the plains to cultivate the land and build settlements. After the arrival of the British in the area, large swathes of territory were cleared for agricultural plantations and timber. The forest in the Western Ghats has been severely fragmented due to human activities, especially clear felling for tea, coffee, and teak plantations during 1860 to 1950. Species that are rare, endemic and habitat specialists are more adversely affected and tend to be lost faster than other species. Complex and species rich habitats like the tropical rainforest are much more adversely affected than other habitats.</p><br>
<p>The area is ecologically sensitive to development and was declared an ecological hotspot in 1988 through the efforts of ecologist Norman Myers. The area covers five percent of India&#39;s land with 27% of all species of higher plants in India (4,000 of 15,000 species) are found here and 1,800 of these are endemic to the region. The range is home to at least 84 amphibian species, 16 bird species, seven mammals, and 1,600 flowering plants which are not found elsewhere in the world. The Government of India established many protected areas including 2 biosphere reserves, 13 National parks to restrict human access, several wildlife sanctuaries to protect specific endangered species and many Reserve Forests, which are all managed by the forest departments of their respective state to preserve some of the ecoregions still undeveloped. The Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve comprising 5,500 km&sup2; of the evergreen forests of Nagarahole and deciduous forests of Bandipur in Karnataka, adjoining regions of Wayanad-Mukurthi in Kerala and Mudumalai National Park-Sathyamangalam in Tamil Nadu forms the largest contiguous protected area in the Western Ghats. Silent Valley in Kerala is among the last tracts of virgin tropical evergreen forest in India.</p><br>
<p>In August 2011, the Western Ghats Ecology Expert Panel (WGEEP) designated the entire Western Ghats as an Ecologically Sensitive Area (ESA) and assigned three levels of Ecological Sensitivity to its different regions. The Western Ghats Ecology Expert Panel, headed by ecologist Madhav Gadgil, was a committee appointed by the Union Ministry of Environment and Forests to assess the biodiversity and environmental issues of the Western Ghats. Gadgil Committee and its successor Kasturirangan Committee recommended suggestions to protect the Western Ghats. Gadgil report was criticized as being too environment-friendly and Kasturirangan report was labelled as being anti-environmental.</p><br>
<p>In 2006, India applied to the UNESCO MAB for the Western Ghats to be listed as a protected World Heritage Site. In 2012, the following places are declared as World Heritage Sites:</p><br>
<p>Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary and National Park</p><br>
<p>Kalakkad Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve</p><br>
<p>Thattekad Bird Sanctuary</p><br>
<p>Mudumalai Tiger Reserve</p><br>
<p>Shendurney Wildlife Sanctuary</p><br>
<p>Neyyar Wildlife Sanctuary</p><br>
<p>Peppara Wildlife Sanctuary</p><br>
<p>Periyar Tiger Reserve</p><br>
<p>Srivilliputtur Wildlife Sanctuary</p><br>
<p>Eravikulam National Park</p><br>
<p>Grass Hills National Park</p><br>
<p>Karian Shola National Park</p><br>
<p>Sathyamangalam Wildlife Sanctuary</p><br>
<p>Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary</p><br>
<p>Silent Valley National Park</p><br>
<p>New Amarambalam Reserved Forest</p><br>
<p>Mukurthi National Park</p><br>
<p>Pushpagiri Wildlife Sanctuary</p><br>
<p>Brahmagiri Wildlife Sanctuary</p><br>
<p>Talakaveri Wildlife Sanctuary</p><br>
<p>Aralam Wildlife Sanctuary</p><br>
<p>Kudremukh National Park</p><br>
<p>Someshwara Wildlife Sanctuary</p><br>
<p>Kaas Plateau</p><br>
<p>Koyna Wildlife Sanctuary</p><br>
<p>Chandoli National Park</p><br>
<p>Radhanagari Wildlife Sanctuary</p><br>
<p>Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary</p><br>
<p>Pambadum Shola National Park</p><br>
<p>Anamudi Shola National Park</p><br>
<p>Chimmony Wildlife Sanctuary</p><br>
<p>Peechi-Vazhani Wildlife Sanctuary</p><br>
<p>Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary</p><br>
<p>Mathikettan Shola National Park</p><br>
<p>Kurinjimala Sanctuary</p><br>
<p>Karimpuzha National Park</p><br>
<p>Idukki Wildlife Sanctuary</p><br>
<p>Ranipuram National Park</p><br>
<h2>Fauna</h2><br>
<p>The Western Ghats are home to thousands of animal species including at least 325 globally threatened species.</p><br>
<h3>Mammals</h3><br>
<p>There are at least 139 mammal species. Of the 16 endemic mammals, 13 are threatened and amongst the 32 threatened species include the critically endangered Malabar large-spotted civet, the endangered lion-tailed macaque, Nilgiri tahr, Bengal tiger and Indian elephants, the vulnerable Indian leopard, Nilgiri langur and gaur.</p><br>
<p>These hill ranges serve as important wildlife corridors and forms an important part of Project Elephant and Project Tiger reserves. The largest population of tigers outside the Sundarbans is in the Western Ghats where there are seven populations with an estimated population size of 336 to 487 individuals occupying 21,435 km&sup2; forest in three major landscape units spread across Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Kerala. The Western Ghats eco-region has the largest Indian elephant population in the wild with an estimated 11,000 individuals across eight distinct populations. The endemic Nilgiri tahr which was on the brink of extinction has recovered and has an estimated 3,122 individuals in the wild. The Critically Endangered endemic Malabar large-spotted civet is estimated to number fewer than 250 mature individuals, with no sub-population greater than 50 individuals. About 3500 lion-tailed macaques live scattered over several areas in the Western Ghats.</p><br>
<h3>Reptiles</h3><br>
<p>The major population of snake family Uropeltidae of the reptile class is restricted to the region. The region has significant population of vulnerable Mugger crocodiles.</p><br>
<h3>Amphibians</h3><br>
<p>The amphibians of the Western Ghats are diverse and unique, with more than 80% of the 179 amphibian species being endemic to the rainforests of the mountains. The endangered purple frog was discovered in 2003. Four new species of frogs belonging to the genera Rhacophorus, Polypedates, Philautus and Bufo were described from the Western Ghats in 2005. The region is also home to many caecilian species.</p><br>
<h3>Fish</h3><br>
<p>There is a higher fish richness in the southern part of the Western Ghats than in the northern, Other rivers with high species numbers include the Periyar, Bharatapuzha, Pamba and Chaliyar, as well as upstream tributaries of the Kaveri, Pambar, Bhavani and Krishna rivers. The most species rich families are the Cyprinids (72 species), hillstream loaches (34 species; including stone loaches, now regarded a separate family), Bagrid catfishes (19 species) and Sisorid catfishes (12 species). The region is home to several brilliantly colored ornamental fishes like Denison&#39;s (or red line torpedo) barb, several species of Dawkinsia barbs, zebra loach, Horabagrus catfish, dwarf pufferfish and dwarf Malabar pufferfish. The rivers are also home to Osteobrama bakeri, and larger species such as the Malabar snakehead and Malabar mahseer. A few are adapted to an underground life, including some Monopterus swampeels, and the catfish Horaglanis and Kryptoglanis.</p><br>
<p>According to the IUCN, 97 freshwater fish species from the Western Ghats were considered threatened in 2011, including 12 critically endangered, 54 endangered and 31 vulnerable. All but one (Tor khudree) of these are endemic to the Western Ghats. An additional 26 species from the region are considered data deficient (their status is unclear at present). The primary threats are from habitat loss, but also from overexploitation and introduced species.</p><br>
<h3>Birds</h3><br>
<p>There are at least 508 bird species. Most of Karnataka&#39;s five hundred species of birds are from the Western Ghats region. There are at least 16 species of birds endemic to the Western Ghats including the endangered rufous-breasted laughingthrush, the vulnerable Nilgiri wood-pigeon, white-bellied shortwing and broad-tailed grassbird, the near threatened grey-breasted laughingthrush, black-and-rufous flycatcher, Nilgiri flycatcher, and Nilgiri pipit, and the least concern Malabar (blue-winged) parakeet, Malabar grey hornbill, white-bellied treepie, grey-headed bulbul, rufous babbler, Wynaad laughingthrush, white-bellied blue-flycatcher and the crimson-backed sunbird.</p><br>
<h3>Insects</h3><br>
<p>There are roughly 6,000 insect species. Of 334 Western Ghats butterfly species, 316 species have been reported from the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve. The Western Ghats is home to 174 species of odonates (107 dragonflies and 67 damselflies), including 69 endemics. Most of the endemic odonate are closely associated with rivers and streams, while the non-endemics typically are generalists.</p><br>
<p>There are several species of leeches found all along the Western Ghats.</p><br>
<h3>Molluscs</h3><br>
<p>Seasonal rainfall patterns of the Western Ghats necessitate a period of dormancy for its land snails, resulting in their high abundance and diversity including at least 258 species of gastropods from 57 genera and 24 families. A total of 77 species of freshwater molluscs (52 gastropods and 25 bivalves) have been recorded from the Western Ghats, but the actual number is likely higher. This include 28 endemics. Among the threatened freshwater molluscs are the mussels Pseudomulleria dalyi, which is a Gondwanan relict, and the snail Cremnoconchus, which is restricted to the spray zone of waterfalls. According to the IUCN, 4 species of freshwater molluscs are considered endangered and 3 are vulnerable. An additional 19 species are considered data deficient.</p><br>
<h2>Flora</h2><br>
<p>Of the 7,402 species of flowering plants occurring in the Western Ghats, 5,588 species are native or indigenous and 376 are exotics naturalised and 1,438 species are cultivated or planted as ornamentals. Among the indigenous species, 2,253 species are endemic to India and of them, 1,273 species are exclusively confined to the Western Ghats. Apart from 593 confirmed subspecies and varieties; 66 species, 5 subspecies and 14 varieties of doubtful occurrence are also reported and therefore amounting 8,080 taxa of flowering plants.</p><br>
<p>The Lérins Islands  are a group of four Mediterranean islands off the French Riviera, near Cannes. The two largest islands in this group are the Île Sainte-Marguerite and the Île Saint-Honorat. The smaller Îlot Saint-Ferréol and Îlot de la Tradelière are uninhabited.</p><br>
<p>Administratively, the islands belong to the commune of Cannes.</p><br>
<p>The islands are first known to have been inhabited during Roman times.</p><br>
<p>The Île de Saint-Honorat bears the name of the founder of the monastery of Lérins, Saint Honoratus. It was founded around the year 410. It is in this monastery that Saint Porcarius lived and probably was killed during an invasion by Saracens. According to tradition, Saint Patrick, patron of Ireland, studied there in the fifth century.</p><br>
<p>A fortified monastery was built between the eleventh and fourteenth centuries. In 1047 the islands were raided by Muslim Andalusi pirates. The monastic community today lives in a monastery built during the nineteenth century.</p><br>
<p>The Île Sainte-Marguerite held a fortress where the Man in the Iron Mask was held captive for a time.</p><br>
<p>The battle of 1637 on Lérins Islands is one of the battles of the Thirty Years&#39; War between the Spanish Catholic Monarchy and the Kingdom of France. This combined naval and land operations and mobilized 39 ships, 11 galleys, 6 fire ships, 12 flutes, and a large fleet of transport. The Spanish garrison was reduced and the French attacked with all their forces. On March 24, 1637 began the siege of the Lérins Islands and the beginning of the attack of five Spanish forts. After a siege of 45 days, the Spaniards from Sainte-Marguerite Island capitulate on 12 May and those of Saint- Honorat Island May 13. Cardinal Sourdis celebrates a thanksgiving Mass with Te Deum May 14</p><br>
<p>In 1707 the Lérins were occupied by the English navy, under the command of Sir Cloudesley Shovell. This was done in order to block the military port of Toulon to help the army of Victor Amadeus II Duke of Savoy and his cousin Eugene besiege that city.</p><br>
<p>Under the French Revolution, the Île Sainte-Marguerite and the Île Saint-Honorat were renamed the Île Marat and the Île Lepeletier, after secular martyrs.</p><br>
<h2>Ile St Marguerite</h2><br>
<p>Ile St Marguerite (Saint Margaret Island) is about a 15-minute boat ride away from Cannes. The cell of the mysterious Man with the Iron Mask can be visited in the Fort of St Marguerite, now renamed the Musée de la Mer (Museum of the Sea). This museum also houses archaeological discoveries from shipwrecks off the coast of the island, including Roman and Saracen ceramics. There is a regular boat service from the mainland. Guided tours in English are available in summer.</p><br>
<h2>Ile St Honorat</h2><br>
<p>Ile St Honorat (Saint Honorat Island), the smaller, southern island, is only inhabited by Cistercian monks. Monks have inhabited the island more or less continuously since AD410 and, at the height of their powers, owned Cannes, Mougins and Vallauris, plus Seborga, Italy. Medieval vestiges remain in the stark church, which is open to the public, and in the ruins of the 11th-century monastery on the sea’s edge. The monks divide their time between prayer and producing red and white wine, honey, lavender oil and Lérina, a herbal liqueur. Although closed to the general public, the monastery welcomes guests for week-long retreats. The monks also run the only boat trips to the island, with departures from Cannes jetty Edouard.</p><br>
<p>The Jura Mountains Massif du Jura,  are a sub-alpine mountain range located north of the Western Alps, mainly following the course of the France–Switzerland border.</p><br>
<p>The Jura separates the Rhine and Rhône basins, forming part of the watershed of each.</p><br>
<p>The name "Jura" is derived from juria, a Latinized form of a Celtic stem jor- "forest".</p><br>
<p>The mountain range gives its name to the French department of Jura, the Swiss Canton of Jura, the Jurassic period of the geologic timescale, and the Montes Jura of the Moon.</p><br>
<h2>Physiography</h2><br>
<p>The Jura Mountains are a distinct province of the larger Central European uplands.</p><br>
<p>In France, the Jura covers most of the Franche-Comté region, stretching south into the Rhône-Alpes region. The range reaches its highest point at Le Crêt de la Neige in the department of Ain and finds its southern terminus in the northwestern part of the department of Savoie. The north end of the Jura extends into the southern tip of the Alsace region. Roughly of the mountain range in France is protected by the Jura Mountains Regional Natural Park.</p><br>
<p>The Swiss Jura is one of the three distinct geographical regions of Switzerland, the other being the Swiss plateau and the Swiss Alps.</p><br>
<p>In Switzerland, the range covers the western border with France in the cantons of Basel-Landschaft, Solothurn, Jura, Bern (i.e., Bernese Jura), Neuchâtel, Vaud.</p><br>
<p>Much of the Swiss Jura region has no historical association with Early Modern Switzerland and was incorporated as part of the Swiss Confederacy only in the 19th century. In the 20th century, a movement of Jurassic separatism developed which resulted in the creation of the canton of Jura in 1979.</p><br>
<p>The Swiss Jura has been industrialized since the 18th century and became a major centre of the watchmaking industry. The area has several cities at very high altitudes, such as La Chaux-de-Fonds, Le Locle, and Sainte-Croix (renowned for its musical boxes); however, it generally has had a marked decline in population since 1960.</p><br>
<p>The Jura range proper (known as "folded Jura", Faltenjura) is continued as the Table Jura in the cantons of Basel-Landschaft and Aargau, and further to Schaffhausen and into southern Germany towards the Swabian and Franconian plateaus.</p><br>
<h3>Geology</h3><br>
<p>The range is built up vertically while decreasing in size laterally (along a rough northwest–southeast line). This deformation accommodates the compression from alpine folding as the main Alpine orogenic front moves roughly northwards. The deformation becomes less pervasive away from the younger, more active Alpine mountain building.</p><br>
<p>The geologic folds comprise three major bands (lithological units) of building that date from three epochs: the Lias (Early Jurassic), the Dogger (Middle Jurassic) and the Malm (Late Jurassic) geologic periods. Each era of folding reveals effects of previously shallow marine environments as evidenced by beds with carbonate sequences, containing abundant bioclasts and oolitic divisions between layers (called horizons).</p><br>
<p>Structurally, the Jura consists of a sequence of geologic folds, the formation of which is facilitated by an evaporitic decollement layer. The box folds are still relatively young, which is evident by the general shape of the landscape showing that they have not existed long enough to experience erosion, thus revealing recent mountain building.</p><br>
<p>The highest peak in the Jura range is Le Crêt de la Neige at.</p><br>
<p>Vosges and Jura coal mining basins</p><br>
<h2>Tourism</h2><br>
<p>The Jura range offer a variety of tourist activities including hiking, cycling, downhill skiing and cross-country skiing. There are many signposted trails including the Jura ridgeway, a hiking route.</p><br>
<p>Tourist attractions include natural features such as the Creux du Van, lookout peaks such as the Chasseral, caves such as the Grottes de l&#39;Orbe, and gorges such as Taubenloch.</p><br>
<p>Both Le Locle and its geographical twin town La Chaux-de-Fonds are recognised as an UNESCO World Heritage Site for their horological and related cultural past. The 11th-century Fort de Joux, famously remodeled and strengthened by Vauban in 1690 and subsequently by other military engineers, is situated on a natural rock outcropping in the middle of the range not far from Pontarlier.</p><br>
<p>Part of the A40 autoroute crosses through a portion of the southern Jura between Bourg-en-Bresse and Bellegarde-sur-Valserine, which is known as the "Highway of the Titans".</p><br>
<p>Holy Island  Cybi) is an island  on the western side of the larger Isle of Anglesey, Wales, from which it is separated by a narrow, winding channel. It is called "Holy" because of the high concentration of standing stones, burial chambers, and other religious sites on the small island. The alternative and historic name of the island is Holyhead Island. According to the 2011 UK Census, the population was 13,659, of which 11,431  lived in the largest town, Holyhead.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Irish pirates invaded Anglesey following the end of Roman rule in Britannia. Cunedda first began warfare against the Irish but ultimately Cadwallon Lawhir defeated the Irish on Holy Island.</p><br>
<h2>Natural features</h2><br>
<p>There are a variety of natural habitats on Anglesey including mudflats, dunes, marshes, and beaches. Practically nothing is left of the oak forest that covered almost all of the island before the arrival of Neolithic farmers. The western side of the island is taken up mainly by Holyhead Mountain, an area of maritime heather moor, which is the highest peak in the county at 722 ft. The coastal zone between the island and the mainland of Anglesey is a large site of special scientific interest – Beddmanarch–Cymyran.</p><br>
<h2>Transport</h2><br>
<p>Holy Island is connected to Anglesey by two road links. The first, the Stanley Embankment, is made up of causeways carrying the A5/A55 and the main railway line to Chester and London, and the original bridge of the A5 post road. The second is Four Mile Bridge, which carries a B road and is much smaller.</p><br>
<p>The main settlement is the port of Holyhead, from which passenger ferries travel to Dún Laoghaire and Dublin, Ireland, and freight ferries also travel to Dublin. Holyhead railway station is located in the town. Other settlements include the villages of Trearddur Bay, Rhoscolyn, and Four Mile Bridge.</p><br>
<p>Around 30 mi of the 125 mi Anglesey Coastal Path is on Holy Island.</p><br>
<h2>Shipwrecks</h2><br>
<p>Peripheral islands and stacks include North Stack, and South Stack, with its famous lighthouse. Before – and even after – the construction of lighthouses, the cliffs and jagged rocks of the island were a great danger to sailors.</p><br>
<p>The Kerch Strait  connects the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov, separating the Kerch Peninsula of Crimea in the west from the Taman Peninsula of Russia&#39;s Krasnodar Krai in the east. The strait is 3.1 km to 15 km wide and up to 18 m deep.</p><br>
<p>The most important harbor, the Crimean city of Kerch, gives its name to the strait, formerly known as the Cimmerian Bosporus. The Krasnodar Krai side of the strait contains the Taman Bay encircled by Tuzla Island and the 2003 Russian-built 3.8 km-long dam to the south and Chushka Spit to the north. Russia had started the construction of a major cargo port near Taman, the most important Russian settlement on the strait, but its building has been suspended.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The straits are about 35 km long and are 3.1 km wide at the narrowest and separate an eastern extension of Crimea from Taman, the western extension of the Caucasus Mountains. In antiquity, there seem to have been a group of islands intersected by arms of the Kuban River (Hypanis) and various sounds which have since silted up. The Romans knew the strait as the Cimmerian Bosporus (Cimmerianus Bosporus) from its Greek name, the Cimmerian Strait (Κιμμέριος Βόσπορος, Kimmérios Bosporos), which honored the Cimmerians, nearby steppe nomads.</p><br>
<p>During the Second World War, the Kerch Peninsula became the scene of much desperate combat between forces of the Soviet Red Army and Germany. Fighting frequency intensified in the coldest months of year when the strait froze over, allowing the movement of troops over the ice.</p><br>
<p>After the Eastern Front stabilized in early 1943, Hitler ordered the construction of a 4.8 km road-and-rail bridge across the Strait of Kerch in the spring of 1943 to support his desire for a renewed offensive to the Caucasus. The cable railway (aerial tramway), which went into operation on 14 June 1943 with a daily capacity of one thousand tons, was only adequate for the defensive needs of the Seventeenth Army in the Kuban bridgehead. Because of frequent earth tremors, this bridge would have required vast quantities of extra-strength steel girders, and their transport would have curtailed shipments of military material to the Crimea. The bridge was never completed, and the Wehrmacht finished evacuating the Kuban bridgehead in September 1943.</p><br>
<p>In 1944 the Soviets built a "provisional" railway bridge across the strait. Construction made use of supplies captured from the Germans. The bridge went into operation in November 1944, but moving ice floes destroyed it in February 1945; reconstruction was not attempted.</p><br>
<p>A territorial dispute between Russia and Ukraine in 2003 centred on Tuzla Island in the Strait of Kerch.</p><br>
<h3>Storm of Autumn 2007</h3><br>
<p>On Sunday 11 November 2007 news agencies reported a very strong storm on the Black Sea. Four ships sank, six ran aground on a sandbank, and two tankers were damaged, resulting in a major oil spill and the death of 23 sailors.</p><br>
<p>The Russian-flagged oil tanker Volgoneft-139 encountered trouble in the Kerch Strait where it sought shelter from the above storm. During the storm the tanker split in half, releasing more than 2000 tonnes of fuel oil. It is thought that the effects of the spill are likely to be felt for many years to come. Four other boats sank in the storm, resulting in the release of sulphur cargo. The storm hampered efforts to rescue crew members.</p><br>
<p>Another victim of the storm, the Russian cargo ship Volnogorsk, loaded with sulfur, sank at Port Kavkaz on the same day.</p><br>
<h2>Ferry and bridge transportation</h2><br>
<p>After the war, ferry transportation across the strait was established in 1952, connecting Crimea and the Krasnodar Krai (Port Krym – Port Kavkaz line). Originally there were four train ferry ships; later three car-ferry ships were added. Train transportation continued for almost 40 years. The aging train-ferries became obsolete in the late 1980s and were removed from service. In the autumn of 2004, new ships were delivered as replacements and train transportation was re-established.</p><br>
<p>Moscow mayor Yuri Luzhkov campaigned for a highway bridge to be constructed across the strait. Since 1944, various bridge projects to span the strait have been proposed or attempted, always hampered by the difficult geologic and geographic configuration of the area. Construction of an approach was actually started in 2003 with the 3.8 km-long dam, provoking the 2003 Tuzla Island conflict.</p><br>
<p>After the 2014 Russian annexation of Crimea the government of Russia decided to build a bridge across the Kerch Strait. It is expected to be operational in 2019.</p><br>
<p>Construction of the bridge caused increases in nutrients and planktons in the waters, attracting large numbers of fish and more than 1,000 of endangered Black Sea bottlenose dolphins.</p><br>
<h2>Kerch-Yenikalskiy Canal</h2><br>
<p>In order to improve navigational capabilities of the Strait of Kerch, which is quite shallow in its narrowest point, the Kerch-Yenikalskiy Canal was dredged through the strait. The canal can accommodate vessels up to 215 meters long with a draft of up to 8 meters with a compulsory pilot assistance.</p><br>
<h2>Fishing</h2><br>
<p>Several fish-processing plants are located on the Crimean coast of the strait. The fishing season begins in late autumn and lasts for 2 to 3 months, when many seiners put out into the strait to fish. The Taman Bay is a major fishing ground, with many fishing villages scattered along the coast.</p><br>
<p>The Gulf of Bothnia  is the northernmost arm of the Baltic Sea. It is situated between Finland&#39;s west coast and Sweden&#39;s east coast. In the south of the gulf lie the Åland Islands, between the Sea of Åland and the Archipelago Sea.</p><br>
<h2>Name</h2><br>
<p>Bothnia is a latinization. The Swedish name "Bottenviken" was originally just "Botn(en)" with botn being Old Norse for "gulf" or "bay&quot which is also the meaning of the second element "vik".</p><br>
<p>The name botn was applied to the Gulf of Bothnia as Helsingjabotn in Old Norse, after Hälsingland, which at the time referred to the coastland west of the gulf. Later, botten was applied to the regions Västerbotten on the western side and Österbotten the eastern side ("East Bottom" and "West Bottom"). The Finnish name of Österbotten, Pohjanmaa, or "Pohja"-land, gives a hint as to the meaning in both languages: the meaning of pohja includes both "bottom" and "north." Pohja (bottom) is the base word for north, pohjoinen, with an adjectival suffix added.</p><br>
<p>Botn/botten is cognate with the English word bottom, and it might be part of a general north European distinction of lowlands, as opposed to highlands, such as the Netherlandic region, Samogitia (Lithuanian), and Sambia (Russia).</p><br>
<p>A second possibility is that botten follows an alternative Scandinavian connotation of furthermost. Thus, the Gulf of Bothnia would be the farthest extent of the Ocean.</p><br>
<p>Julius Pokorny gives the extended Proto-Indo-European root as *bhudh-m(e)n with a *bhudh-no- variant, from which the Latin fundus, as in fundament, is derived. The original meaning of English north, from Proto-Indo-European *ner- "under", indicates an original sense of "lowlands" for "bottomlands". On the other hand, by "north" the classical authors usually meant "outermost", as the northern lands were outermost to them.</p><br>
<p>The origin of the word is indeed very ancient, belonging to a period before the world discoveries by the Portuguese. Until then, north was not seen as the magnetic top of the world, East being the normal orientation of a map.</p><br>
<p>Also, in Saami, the cardinal directions were named according to the different parts of the typical tent used by this nomadic people. The door of the tent was traditionally pointed South, in the most sunny direction, and the bottom of the tent would be aligned with the North. Thus the origin of the word pohja in its use as "north". Deriving as well from this logic is the affinity in the Finnish language of the words eteinen, meaning "entrance room/hall" and etelä, "South". According to Lönnrot, north was viewed as the bottom direction because the lowest point of the sun&#39;s path is there.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<h3>Extent</h3><br>
<p>The International Hydrographic Organization defines the southern limit of the Gulf of Bothnia as follows:</p><br>
<p>From Simpnäsklubb (59°54N) in Sweden, to Flötjan, Lagskær, Fæstörne, Kökarsörn, and Vænö-Kalkskær to the SW point of Hangöudde (Hangö Head, 59°49N) in Finland, thus including the Aland islands and adjacent shoals and channels in the Gulf of Bothnia.</p><br>
<h3>Geophysical data</h3><br>
<p>The gulf is 725 km (450 mi) long, 80–240 km (50-150 mi) wide and has an average depth of 60 m (200 ft, 33 fathoms). The maximum depth is 295 m (965 ft, 161 fathoms). The surface area is 117,000 km² (45,200 sq mi). The northernmost point is situated in Töre in the Bothnian Bay. its coordinates are 65° 5407" N 22° 3900 E.</p><br>
<p>The depth and surface area of the Gulf of Bothnia are constantly decreasing, as the land is rising after it had been pressed down by the continental ice during last ice age. The rise is 80 cm every hundred years.</p><br>
<p>Into the gulf flow a number of rivers from both sides; consequently, a salinity gradient exists from north to south.</p><br>
<p>In the south the water is the normal brackish water of the Baltic Sea, but in the north, in the Bothnian Bay, the salinity is so low, from 0.4% near Kvarken to 0.2% in the northernmost part, that many freshwater fish such as the pike, whitefish and perch thrive in it.</p><br>
<p>Being nearly fresh, the gulf is frozen over five months every year. The icing of the Baltic Sea begins and ends in the northern Gulf of Bothnia. Traffic restrictions for icebreaker assistance are typically in force for all the gulf from late January to late April and for the northernmost ports from the middle of December to the middle of May.</p><br>
<h2>Geological history</h2><br>
<p>For the geological history of the entire region, refer to the Baltic Sea.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Some historians suggest that the adventurer Ottar was referring to the Gulf of Bothnia when he spoke of the Kven Sea in the 9th century. It is also possible that Claudius Clavus&#39;s usage of the term Mare Gotticus in the 15th century refers to the Gulf of Bothnia.</p><br>
<h2>Economy</h2><br>
<p>The land surrounding the Gulf of Bothnia is heavily forested. Trees are logged, then transported to the coast for milling. The gulf is also important for oil transport to the coastal cities and ore transport to steel mills, for instance in Raahe.</p><br>
<p>In terms of tonnage in international traffic, the largest ports on the Finnish side are Rauma, Kokkola and Tornio. The main ports of the Swedish side are in Luleå, Skellefteå, Umeå, Sundsvall, Gävle and Hargshamn. In Luleå, iron ore pellets are exported and coal is imported. Gävle is Sweden&#39;s third-largest container port. It also ships forest products and oil. In the Gulf of Bothnia, icebreakers assist the ports needed in average half a year, when the Gulf of Finland, the season is only three months.</p><br>
<p>There is some fishery, mainly Baltic herring, for domestic needs. A persistent problem has been pollution, because the sea is enclosed by a large drainage basin and is poorly connected to fresher waters from the Atlantic. Mercury and PCB levels have been relatively high, although the Finnish Food Safety Authority considers the herring edible. Although the levels exceed the limits, the fatty acids have health benefits that offset this risk.</p><br>
<h2>Rivers</h2><br>
<p>Kemijoki</p><br>
<p>Kokemäenjoki</p><br>
<p>Oulujoki</p><br>
<p>Dalälven</p><br>
<p>Ljusnan</p><br>
<p>Ljungan</p><br>
<p>Indalsälven</p><br>
<p>Ångerman</p><br>
<p>Ume River</p><br>
<p>Skellefte River</p><br>
<p>Pite River</p><br>
<p>Lule River</p><br>
<p>Kalix River</p><br>
<p>Torne</p><br>
<h2>Cities</h2><br>
<p>Oulu</p><br>
<p>Pori</p><br>
<p>Rauma</p><br>
<p>Vaasa</p><br>
<p>Luleå</p><br>
<p>Umeå</p><br>
<p>Härnösand</p><br>
<p>Sundsvall</p><br>
<p>Gävle</p><br>
<p>Jakobstad</p><br>
<p>Balasagun was an ancient Soghdian city in modern-day Kyrgyzstan, located in the Chuy Valley between Bishkek and Issyk-Kul Lake.</p><br>
<p>Balasagun was founded by Soghdians, a people of Iranian origin and the Soghdian language was still in use in this town until the 11th century.</p><br>
<p>It was the capital of the Kara-Khanid Khanate from the 10th century until it was taken by the Kara-Khitan Khanate in 1134. It was then captured by the Mongols in 1218. The Mongols called it Gobalik ("pretty city"). It should not be confused with the city of Karabalghasun in Mongolia which was the capital of the Uyghur Khaganate.</p><br>
<p>Founded by the Kara-Khanid Khanate in the 9th century, Balasagun soon supplanted Suyab as the main political and economical centre of the Chuy Valley; its prosperity declined after the Mongol conquest. The poet Yusuf Has Hajib, known for writing the Kutadgu Bilig, is thought to have been born in Balasagun in the 11th century. The city also had a sizable Nestorian Christian population; one graveyard was still in use in the 14th century. Since the 14th century, Balasagun is a village with plenty of ruins, 12 km southeast of Tokmok.</p><br>
<p>The Burana zone, located at the edge of Tokmok and 6 km from the present village of Balasagun, was the west end of the ancient city. It includes the Burana Tower and a field of stone petroglyphs, the bal-bals. The Burana Tower is a minaret built in the 11th century on the ruins of the ancient city Balasagun. It is 24 m (79 ft) in height, though when it was first built it topped 46 m (138 ft). Several earthquakes through the centuries caused much damage, and the current building represents a major renovation carried out in the 1970s.</p><br>
<p>Icaria, also spelled Ikaria , is a Greek island in the Aegean Sea, 10 nautical miles  southwest of Samos. According to tradition, it derives its name from Icarus, the son of Daedalus in Greek mythology, who was believed to have fallen into the sea nearby.</p><br>
<p>Administratively, Icaria forms a separate municipality within the Ikaria regional unit, which is part of the North Aegean region. The principal town of the island and seat of the municipality is Agios Kirykos. The historic capitals of the island include Oenoe and Evdilos.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>It is one of the middle islands of the northern Aegean, 255.303 km&sup2; in area with 102 mi of coastline and a population of 8,312 inhabitants. The topography is a contrast between verdant slopes and barren steep rocks. The island is mountainous for the most part. It is traversed by the Aetheras range, whose highest summit is 1,037 m. Most of its villages are nestled in the plains near the coast, with some in the mountains.</p><br>
<p>Icaria has a tradition of producing strong red wine. Many parts of the island, especially the ravines, are covered in shrubbery, making the landscape lush with green. Aside from domestic and domesticated species such as goats, there are a number of small wild animals to be found, such as martens, otters, jumping spiders and toads. Icaria exhibits a typical Mediterranean climate.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Icaria has been inhabited since at least 7000 BC, when it was populated by the Neolithic pre-Hellenic race of Pelasgians. Around 750 BC, Greeks from Miletus colonized Icaria, establishing a settlement in the area of present-day Campos, which later became the ancient capital city of Oenoe.</p><br>
<p>Icaria, in the 6th century BC, became part of Polycrates&#39; sea empire, and, in the 5th century BC, the Icarian cities of Oenoe and Thermae were members of the Athenian-dominated Delian League. In the 2nd century, the island was colonized by Samos. At this time, the Tauropolion, the temple of Artemis was built at Oenoe. Coins of the city represented Artemis and a bull. There was another, smaller temenos that was sacred to Artemis Tauropolos, at Nas, on the northwest coast of the island.</p><br>
<p>Nas had been a sacred spot to the pre-Greek inhabitants of the Aegean and an important island port in antiquity, the last stop before testing the dangerous seas around Icaria. It was an appropriate place for sailors to make sacrifices to Artemis Tauropolos, who, among other functions, was a patron of seafarers; here, the goddess was represented in an archaic wooden xoanon.</p><br>
<h3>Fate of classical remnants</h3><br>
<p>The temple stood in good repair until the middle of the 19th century when the marble was pillaged, for their local church, by the Kato Raches villagers. In 1939, it was excavated by the Greek archeologist Leon Politis. During the Axis occupation of Greece during World War II, many of the artifacts that were unearthed by Politis disappeared. Local custom states that there are still marble statues embedded in the sand off the coast.</p><br>
<h3>Early modern:Hospitalier and Ottoman era</h3><br>
<p>The Knights of St. John, who had their base in Rhodes, exerted some control over Icaria until 1521, when the Ottoman Empire incorporated Icaria into its realm. The Icarians hanged the first Turkish tax collector but managed to escape punishment, as none would identify the guilty one and the Turks realistically determined that there was neither profit nor honour in punishing all.</p><br>
<p>The Ottomans imposed a very loose administration, not sending any officials to Icaria for several centuries, although in later years they would appoint groups of locals in each village of the island to act as Kodjabashis in order to collect taxes for the empire. The best account we have of the island during the early years of the Ottoman rule is from archbishop J. Georgirenes who in 1677 described the island with almost 1,000 hardy, long-lived inhabitants, who were the poorest people in the Aegean.</p><br>
<p>Without a decent port - the locals destroyed the island&#39;s ports in order to protect themselves from pirate raids - Icaria depended for its very limited intercourse with the outside world on small craft that were drawn up on the beaches, for which Icarian boat-builders had a high reputation, building boats from the abundant fir forests; they sold boats and lumber for coin and grain at Chios. The inshore waters, Georgirenes asserted, provided the best cockles in the Archipelago.</p><br>
<p>Goats and sheep roamed virtually untended in the rocky landscape. Cheeses were made for consumption in each household. Icaria in the 17th century was unusual in the Archipelago in not providing any wine for export; rather than keeping the wine made for local consumption in barrels, they continued to store it in the age-old fashion, in terracotta pithoi sunk to their rims in earth, which helped protect their supplies from both tax collectors and pirates.</p><br>
<p>Apart from three small towns, none of which exceeded 100 houses, and numerous village settlements, each house had a walled orchard and a garden plot. Unlike the closely built towns of Samos, the hardy inhabitants lived separately in fortified unfurnished farmsteads.</p><br>
<p>The ruins of the lighthouse on the promontory that faces Samos, called the "Tower of Icarus", were strictly off limits to the islanders, as tradition asserted that there was treasure to be found in them.</p><br>
<p>In 1827, during the Greek War of Independence, Icaria broke away from the Ottoman Empire, but was not included in the narrow territory of the original independent Greece and was forced to accept Ottoman rule once more a few years later.</p><br>
<h3>Free State of Icaria</h3><br>
<p>Icaria remained part of the Ottoman Empire until July 17, 1912, when the Icarians expelled the Turkish garrison and thereby achieved independence. After its independence and the outbreak of the First Balkan War, Icaria&#39;s sole "warship", the Cleopatra, was used to provide food and supplies to the islands of Samos and Chios, which were captured by the Greek Navy during the war.</p><br>
<p>George N. Spanos (c. 1872–1912) of Evdilos, killed in a Turkish ambush on July 17, 1912, is honored as the hero of the Icarian Revolution. His bust, depicting him defiantly, with bandoliers and rifle in hand, may be seen at the memorial established in his honor at the site of his death located in the Icarian town of Chrysostomos.</p><br>
<p>On July 18, 1912, the Free State of Icaria (Ελευθέρα Πολιτεία Ικαρίας, Elefthéra Politía Ikarías) was declared. The neighboring islands of Fournoi Korseon were also liberated and became part of the Free State. Ioannis Malahias (Ιωάννης Μαλαχίας) was the first and only president of the Free State of Icaria.</p><br>
<p>For five months, it remained an independent country, with its own government, armed forces, national flag, coat of arms, postage stamps, and national anthem. These five months were difficult for the islands economy. There were food shortages and they were at risk of becoming part of the Italian Dodecanese. In November 1912, after a delay due to the Balkan Wars, Icaria officially became part of the Kingdom of Greece. Ottoman Empire recognized Greeces annexation of Icaria and the other Aegean islands in the Treaty of London (1913).</p><br>
<h3>Second World War</h3><br>
<p>The island suffered losses in property and lives during the Second World War as the result of the Italian and then German occupation. There are no exact figures on how many people starved, but in the village of Karavostamo alone over 100 perished from starvation.</p><br>
<h3>"Red Rock"</h3><br>
<p>After the ravages of the war the nationalists and communists fought in the Greek Civil War (1946–49), and the Greek government used the island to exile about 13,000 communists. To this date, a number of locals have remained sympathetic to left parties and communism, and, for this reason, Icaria is referred to by some as the "Red Rock" (Κόκκινος Βράχος, Kokkinos Vrahos).</p><br>
<p>In his analysis, "Rebels and Radicals; Icaria 1600–2000", historian Anthony J. Papalas (East Carolina University) examines modern Icaria in the light of such 20th-century questions as poverty, emigration to America, the nature of the Axis occupation, the rise of Communism, the Greek Civil War and the rightwing reaction to radical post-war movements.</p><br>
<h3>Modern era</h3><br>
<p>The quality of life improved greatly after 1960, when the Greek government began to invest in the infrastructure of the island to assist in the promotion of tourism. Today, Icaria is considered one of the world&#39;s five "Blue Zones" – places where the population regularly lives to an advanced age (one in three make it to their 90s). This is due to healthy diets and lifestyles.</p><br>
<h2>Population</h2><br>
<p>The inhabitants of the island are known as Icarians or Icariots. (Ικαριότες, Ikariótes).</p><br>
<p>An Icarian diaspora is found throughout Greece, specifically on Thimena and Fournoi Korseon, as well as in Athens, where a large community is found. The Icarian diaspora can be found throughout the world, mainly in Australia, United States, Canada and United Kingdom.</p><br>
<p>Icarian Greeks are closely related to other Aegean island Greeks, such as Greeks from Samos, Chios, Fournoi Korseon and Patmos, as well as Greeks from Anatolia.</p><br>
<h2>Education</h2><br>
<p>The Icarus myth, where the island gets its name, is a major part of the local curriculum. The island has many schools and participates in student exchanges with schools in Athens.</p><br>
<h2>Municipality</h2><br>
<p>The present municipality Ikaria was formed at the 2011 local government reform by the merger of the following 3 former municipalities, that became municipal units:</p><br>
<p>Agios Kirykos</p><br>
<p>Evdilos</p><br>
<p>Raches</p><br>
<h3>Subdivisions</h3><br>
<p>The municipal units Agios Kirykos, Evdilos and Raches are subdivided into the following communities (constituent villages in brackets):</p><br>
<p>Agios Kirykos</p><br>
<p>Agios Kirykos (Agios Kirykos, Therma Ikarias, Katafygio, Lardades, Mavrato, Koundouma, Mavrikato, Xylosyrtis, Oxea, Tsouredes, Faros)</p><br>
<p>Perdiki (Perdiki, Kioni, Mileopo, Monokampi, Ploumari)</p><br>
<p>Chrysostomos (Chrysostomos, Vardarades, Vaoni, Livadi, Plagia)</p><br>
<p>Evdilos</p><br>
<p>Evdilos (Evdilos, Kambos, Agia Kyriaki, Droutsoulas, Kerameio, Kyparissi, Xanthi, Fytema)</p><br>
<p>Arethousa (Arethousa, Kyparissi, Pera Arethousa, Foinikas)</p><br>
<p>Dafni (Dafni, Akamatra, Kosoikia, Petropouli, Steli)</p><br>
<p>Karavostamo</p><br>
<p>Manganitis (Manganitis, Kalamonari)</p><br>
<p>Frantato (Frantato, Avlaki, Kalamourida, Kampos, Kremasti, Maratho, Pigi, Stavlos)</p><br>
<p>Raches</p><br>
<p>Raches (Christos, Agios Dimitrios, Armenistis, Vrakades, Kares, Nas (Ikaria)Nas or</p><br>
<p>Kato Raches, Kouniadoi, Mavriannos, Nanouras, Xinta, Proespera, Profitis Ilias, Tsakades)</p><br>
<p>Agios Polykarpos (Agios Polykarpos, Agios Panteleimonas, Gialiskari, Kastanies, Lapsachades, Lomvardades, Mandria)</p><br>
<p>Karkinagri (Karkinagri, Amalo, Kalamos, Lagkada, Pezi, Trapalo)</p><br>
<h2>Museums</h2><br>
<p>Archeological Museum of Kampos</p><br>
<p>The Archaeological Museum, located in the village of Kambos, stands on a hill which was once the ancient fortress of Oinoe, and is immediately next to Agia Irini, Ikaria&#39;s oldest church. The museum contains over 250 artifacts, including Neolithic tools, pottery vessels, clay statuettes, columns, coins and carved headstones.</p><br>
<p>Archeological Museum of Agios Kirikos</p><br>
<p>Housed in the former lycee of Agios Kirikos, which was built by immigrant Ikarians living in America, the recently renovated Neo-Classical building dating to 1925 is the home of Ikarias Archeological Museum. This listed building will house all of Ikarias most relevant finds and highlight the history and culture of the island in the facilities of a modern museum and research/conservation center.</p><br>
<p>Complete with multimedia displays and films dedicated to the Myth of Ikaros and the ancient citadel of Drakano, the museum presents Ikarias archeological findings and relates to the visitor an understanding of the cultural, commercial and social development of the settlements of ancient Ikaria throughout the course of the islands history.</p><br>
<p>Folk & Historical Museum Of Agios Kirikos</p><br>
<p>Located in Agios Kirikos, The Folk & History Museum of Agios Kirikos in Ikaria was launched in July 2010, and is the result of the long efforts by Professor Themistocles Katsaros. Its mission is to preserve and promote Ikarian folklore, traditions and customs through its display of over 1,500 objects that reflect the history and heritage of Ikaria and its inhabitants.</p><br>
<p>The museum exhibits items of cultural importance from the island, including dresses, textiles, household articles, pottery, agriculture and trade tools & instruments, photos, documents and many other objects.</p><br>
<p>Of particular interest amongst the items displayed in the museum is the flag of the Free State of Ikaria (1912).</p><br>
<p>Some of the exhibits have been organised thematically and chronologically, so that objects and images give visitors an idea of social and economic life in Ikaria from the 18th century to the 1970s, when traditional life still continued in the region.</p><br>
<p>Folklore Museum Of Vrakades</p><br>
<p>The Folklore Museum of Vrakades is located in the scenic village of Vrakades, 650 meters above sea level on the north-western side of the island. The village was founded in the 17th century and contains old stone houses and captains&#39; villas of architectural note. The museum houses an interesting collection of items related to the history and people of the region. Of particular interest are documents and memorabilia from the Free State of Ikaria.</p><br>
<p>Other exhibits include various clay and wooden objects used by housewives, beekeepers, and farmers, ecclesiastical relics from Profit Elias in Vrakades and the convent of Evagelistrias Mavrianou, books by Ikarian writers, Ikarian records and documents over 500 years old. Of note is the cutter, "lanari" in Greek, used for the processing of wool and goat hairs from which the modest local clothing was made, the "lisgos", a simple tool used for making ropes, an old digging tool, and many other tools belonging to the first inhabitants of the island.</p><br>
<h2>Notable residents</h2><br>
<p>Yorgos Lanthimos (born 1973), Academy Award-nominated film director</p><br>
<p>Eleftheria Arvanitaki (born 1957), singer</p><br>
<p>Aris Poulianos (born 1924), anthropologist</p><br>
<p>Mikis Theodorakis (lived several years on the island as an exile), musician</p><br>
<p>Savvas and Christodoulos Xiros, brothers, members of the Revolutionary Organization 17 November</p><br>
<p>Konstantinos Mendrinos (born 28 May 1985), football player</p><br>
<p>Dean Karnazes (born 23 August 1962), ultramarathon runner</p><br>
<p>Stephan Pastis (born January 16, 1968) cartoonist</p><br>
<p>Zack Space (born 1961), American politician, member of the Democratic Party</p><br>
<p>Elena Carapetis (born February 26, 1970), Australian actress and musician</p><br>
<p>Alex Carapetis (born 1982), Australian musician</p><br>
<p>David Zaharakis (born 1990), Australian Rules football player, Essendon</p><br>
<p>Chris Kourakis, Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of South Australia</p><br>
<p>Anthony Maras, Australian film director, writer and producer</p><br>
<p>Jonathan Carapetis (1961), Australian paediatric physician</p><br>
<p>Nick Mamatas (1972), American author</p><br>
<p>Christodoulos I. Stefanadis (born 1947) Professor of cardiology, researcher</p><br>
<p>Kernavė was a medieval capital of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and today is a tourist attraction and an archeological site . It is located in the Širvintos district municipality located in southeast Lithuania. A Lithuanian state cultural reserve was established in Kernavė in 1989. In 2004 Kernavė Archaeological Site was included into UNESCO world heritage list.</p><br>
<h2>Geographic information</h2><br>
<p>Kernavė is a small town in the southeaster part of Lithuania, in Širvintos district, located on the right bank of the river Neris, on the upper Neris terrace. It is 21 km distance from Širvintos and 35 km from Vilnius. It is close to the Vilnius-Kaunas (18 km) and Vilnius-Panevėžys (17 km) highways. It is possible to travel to Kernavė from Vilnius by the river Neris.</p><br>
<h2>Alternate names</h2><br>
<p>Its alternate names include Kernavos, Kernovo, Kiernowo, Kiernów (Polish), and Kernuvke (Yiddish).</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The area of Kernavė was sparingly inhabited at the end of the Paleolithic era, with the number of settlements significantly increasing in the Mesolithic and Neolithic eras.</p><br>
<p>The town was first mentioned in 1279, when, as the capital of the Grand Duke Traidenis, it was besieged by the Teutonic Knights. In 1390, during the Lithuanian Civil War (1389–1392), the knights burned the town and its buildings in the Pajauta valley, including the castle. After this raid, the town wasn&#39;t rebuilt, and the remaining residents moved to the top of the hill instead of staying in the valley.</p><br>
<p>In later years, the remains of city were covered with an alluvial earth layer, that formed wet peat. It preserved most of the relics intact, and it is a treasure trove for archaeologists, leading some to call Kernavė the "Troy of Lithuania". For example, Kernavė has the oldest known medgrinda, a secret underwater road paved with wood. The road was used for defense and dates from the 4–7th centuries.</p><br>
<p>The site became the subject of wider interest again in the middle of 19th century, when a romantic writer, Feliks Bernatowicz, depicted the area in his novel "Pojata, córka Lizdejki" ("Pojata, Daughter of Lizdejki", Warsaw, 1826). The hillforts were soon excavated by the Tyszkiewicz brothers and then by Władysław Syrokomla (1859). After World War II, the excavation works were restarted by Vilnius University in the 1979, and then again by the Lithuanian Institute of History between 1980–1983. The State Cultural Reserve of Kernavė was created in 2003.</p><br>
<h2>Architecture</h2><br>
<h3>The church</h3><br>
<p>Next to the present-day church is the churchyard of the old churches. The foundations of the church built in 1739 have been excavated. This wooden church was moved in 1935 to Krivonys. A concrete monument with a cross erected in 1930 during the celebrations of the 500th anniversary of Vytautas death serves as a reminder of the Vytautas Church built in 1420.</p><br>
<p>In the grounds of the ancient churches, from the 15th to the 19th century, the people of Kernavė were buried. Two chapels stand nearby. The wooden chapel is an example of folk architecture. It is believed that it was built at the end of the 13th century on the Kernavelė estate, and moved to the Kernavė church. At the end of the 19th century the church used it as a storehouse. In 1920 a new church was built, and the chapel staffed to decay, since it was no longer part of the church. In 1959 it was repaired, and in 1993–1994 restored. The building belongs to the Kernavė parish. It is used to display exhibits of wooden church sculpture.</p><br>
<p>The brick chapel from the 19th century houses the mausoleum of the Romer family. It was built in 1851–1856 by the landowner Stanisław Romer. The chapel is built of brick and plaster, and is an example of late classicism. It is small and has an octagonal plan, which is unusual for classicism. Inside, there is an opening in the floor which leads to the crypt. Coffins were bricked into its niches. Inside the chapel the altar&#39;s mensa, built of stones, has survived. Along the side walls there are black benches. Memorial plaques with the Coat of Arms and names of the members of the Riomeriai family are attached to the walls. After the First World War the chapel was neglected. It was repaired in 1959 and 1987. At the present time the chapel belongs to the Kernavė parish.</p><br>
<p>Both chapels are situated in the Kernavė archaeological and historical reservation. The present-day church was built between 1910 and 1920. Neo-gothic elements are dominant in the architecture.</p><br>
<p>During the 1980s, on the initiative of Monsignor Česlovas Krivaitis, the churchyard was repaired, new gates were built and the altar and interior were restored. The churchyard is decorated with Stations of the Cross, arranged by the artist Jadvyga Grisiūtė. In the churchyard there are two monuments built to commemorate the 600th anniversary of Christianisation and the 700th anniversary of the first mention in written sources of the name of Kernavė. The first monument depicts a hearth and a sword, the transition from Paganism to Christianity; the second, a knight with a sword standing between the city gates, the main part of the town Coat of Arms. Millstones are incorporated into the structures of both monuments. The grave of the priest, writer and promoter of the history of Kernavė, Nikodemas Švogžlys-Milžinas is near the monument commemorating the 700th anniversary of Kernavė.</p><br>
<p>In the church there are several valuable pieces of art. The altar, two paintings, two sculptures, a small altar, three glasses and the bell are listed. The Neo-baroque altar is in the side nave. In its center is the painting Maria, on its sides are columns and sculptures of St. Peter and Saint Paul. Another five smaller sculptures depict St. Mary, two angels and two saints. All the sculptures belong to the Baroque style. The polychromatic architectural details of the altar are imitation marble, their features are bronze.</p><br>
<p>The painting Marija Škaplierinė (canvas, oil, metal, 220 x) is on the altar in the central nave. It was painted in 1816 and depicts the Mother and Child, God the Father, and the Holy Spirit (a dove). The painting The Holy Family (canvas, oil, 143 x) comes from the 18th century. The painting shows the Mother and Child and a lamb. In the background is St. Joseph; above are angels. The composition is asymmetric, and has several lines of perspective.</p><br>
<p>Other pieces of art include a small altar from the early 19th century, two glasses from the beginning of the 19th century, one glass from the beginning of the 18th century, and a bell from the 17th century. The bell is made of brass, 45 cm in diameter, cast in Vilnius in 1667. In the 1980s, thanks to the efforts of Monsignor Ceslovas Krivaitis, a non-traditional presbytery was constructed, and the surroundings were cleaned up.</p><br>
<p>In the presbytery is an exhibition of the way of life of parishioners, and historic and holy relics. In 1987 a museum of sacramental relics was opened in the old presbytery building. At the parish hall the pre-war sculpture of the Iron Wolf has been rebuilt. The cultural activities of the church contribute much to the general historical and cultural life of Kernavė. A wide pavement leads from the town centre to the church. The State Kernavė Archaeological Historical Museum and the district office have moved into the cultural center (architect A. Alekna).</p><br>
<h3>Primary school</h3><br>
<p>The Kernavė Primary School, is a two-story building built in 1929. Here, on 28 December 1930, the teacher J. Šiaučiūnas opened the first exhibition of the museum. He devoted his life to educational and cultural work at this school until his deportation on 14 June 1941 by Soviets. He died in Siberia on 17 October 1943. In 1998 the school was repaired and restored. In 1998, by decision of the Board of the Širvintos District, the Kernavė primary school was given the name of Juozas Šiaučiūnas. In 1999 the school, and in the year 2000 the Kernavė museum, celebrated the 70th anniversaries of their foundation.</p><br>
<p>The old architecture of Kernavė is best preserved in Vilnius and Kriveikiškio streets. In the central part of the town, the buildings are mainly from the postwar period. The settlement is in harmony with the natural beauty of its surroundings. To the south of the town is the Archaeological and Historical Reservation, the spectacular natural relief on both sides of the Neris.</p><br>
<h2>Tourism information</h2><br>
<p>Tourists can find the latest information about events and surrounding tourist attractions at Kernavė tourist information bureau. In summer Kernavė comes to life. Celebrations and folk festivals are organized. Archaeological expeditions have been held for more than 20 years, in which Lithuanian and foreign archaeologists, students, and school children take part.</p><br>
<p>Kernavė is also famous for its traditional Rasa festivals. As early as 1967 a group of university students held the very first Rasa festival, which later became a tradition. For several decades it was not only a way to clean the soul, but also to protest against the humiliation of national consciousness and the forced implantation of Soviet traditions. Attempts to prohibit this festival were not successful.</p><br>
<p>Kernavė is famous for national celebrations of Mindaugas coronation day on 6 July. On that day a festival is held, where medieval authentic crafts, war games and folk music are presented. The craftsmen come from around the Baltics and neighboring countries.</p><br>
<p>Camulodunum , the Ancient Roman name for what is now Colchester in Essex, was an important Originally the site of the Brythonic-Celtic oppidum of Camulodunon , capital of the Trinovantes and later the Catuvellauni tribes, it was first mentioned by name on coinage minted by the chieftain Tasciovanus sometime between 20 and 10 BC. often shortened to Colonia Victricensis, and as Camulodunum, a Latinised version of its original Brythonic name. It wasnt until the late 18th century that historians realised that Colchesters physical Brythonic  and Roman remains were the city mentioned in ancient literature as "Camulodunum".</p><br>
<h2>Iron Age Camulodunon</h2><br>
<p>The earliest Iron Age defensive site at Colchester is the Pitchbury Ramparts earthwork north of the town between West Bergholt and Great Horkesley. Other earthworks close off eastern parts of the settlement. These earthworks gave the oppidum its Brythonic Celtic name - Camulodunon meant "The Stronghold of Camulus", the British God of War.</p><br>
<p>The main sites within the bounds of these defences are the Gosbecks farmstead, the Sheepen industrial area and the Lexden burials. The Gosbecks site consists of a large, high-status farmstead, as well as an important coin mint. Two coins minted at Sheepen, one found in Colchester in 1980 and another found at Canturbury in 1978, depict boats, and are the only known depictions of sailing vessels from Iron Age Britain. Amphorae containing imported goods from the continent have been found at Sheepen, as have pieces of imported Samian pottery.</p><br>
<p>Just inside the earthworks, at Lexden, are located the burial mounds of the rulers of Camulodunon, which contain large amounts of grave goods including imported Roman material from Europe; the largest of these mounds is the Lexden tumulus. The Lexden area around the mounds contains several Iron Age cremation burial groups, including one containing the "Mirror burial", with other burials located around the Camulodunon site. A large cluster of cremations from St. Clares road and Fitzwalter Road close to the Lexden Tumulus date to 50-10 BC.</p><br>
<p>Aside from these main activity areas, the 1,000ha area enclosed by the defensive earthworks and rivers mainly consisted of a network of droveways, hollow ways, pastures and fields associated with cattle herding. Scattered Roundhouses and burials have been discovered amongst these droveways. The defences were designed to protect the high status and industrial areas as well as prevent cattle rustling of valuable herds. Camulodunon was surrounded by farmsteads like those at Abbotstone near Colchester Zoo and at Birch Quarry, many of which continued to exist on into the Roman period until at least the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD.</p><br>
<p>Iron Age salt works (known as Red hills) have been found in large numbers around the Essex coast, including several large concentrations located in the salt marshes close to Camulodunon in the Colne Estuary, on the Roman River near Fingringhoe, in Alresford Creek, on Mersea Island, the Pyefleet Channel, the Blackwater River and around the Tendring Peninsula. Camulodunon may have been an at the centre of the local trade in this important preservative.</p><br>
<p>Addedomarus, a king of the Trinovantes tribe (originally centred at Braughing), is the first identifiable ruler of Camulodunon, known from his inscribed coins dating to around 25-10 BC. For a brief period around 10 BC Tasciovanus, a king of the Catuvellauni already issuing coins from Verlamion, also issued coins from Camulodunon, suggesting that the Trinovantes capital had been conquered by the Catuvellauni, but he was soon forced to withdraw, perhaps as a result of Roman pressure – his later coins are no longer marked with the Latin REX (for king), but with the Brythonic RICON – and Addedomarus was restored. His son Dubnovellaunus succeeded him, but was soon supplanted by Tasciovanus son Cunobelinus. Cunobelinus then succeeded his father at Verlamion, beginning the dominance of the Catuvellauni over the south-east. Cunobelinus was friendly with Rome, marking his coins with the word REX and classical motifs rather than the traditional Gallo-Belgic designs. Archaeology shows an increase in imported luxury goods, probably through the Sheepen site port of Camulodunon, during his reign. He was probably one of the British kings that Strabo says sent embassies to Augustus. Strabo reports Romes lucrative trade with Britain; the islands exports included grain, gold, silver, iron, hides, slaves and hunting dogs. Iron ingots, slave chains and storage vessels discovered at the Sheepen site appear to confirm this trade with the Empire.</p><br>
<h2>Pre-Boudican Roman Town</h2><br>
<h3>Claudian Invasion</h3><br>
<p>The Catuvellauni king Cunobelinus, ruling from his capital at Camulodunon, had subjugated a large area of southern and eastern Britain, and was called by the Roman historian Suetonius "King of the Britons". Under his rule Camulodunon had replaced Verlamion as the most important settlement in pre-Roman Britain. Around 40 AD he had fallen out with his son Adminius (acting as proxy ruler of the Cantiaci tribe in his father’s name), who had fled to Rome for support. There he was received by the Emperor Gaius, who may have attempted an invasion of Britain to put Adminius on his father’s throne. After Cunobelinus’ death (c. 40 AD) his sons took power, with Togodumnus the eldest ruling the Catuvellauni homeland around Verlamion, and Caratacus ruling from Camulodunon. Together these brothers began expanding their influence over other British tribes, including the Atrebates of the south coast. Verica, king of the Atrebates, which had branches on both sides of the English Channel and had been friends of Rome since Caesar’s conquest, appealed to the Emperor Claudius for aid. At the time of this appeal in 43 AD the newly enthroned Emperor Claudius was in need of a military victory in order to secure his shaky position with the military, and saw this call for help as the perfect pretext. Aulus Plautius led the four Roman legions across to Britain with Camulodunon being their main target, defeating and killing Togodumnus near the Thames and then waiting for Claudius to cross the Channel. Claudius arrived with reinforcements, including artillery and elephants, leading the attack on Camulodunon. Caratacus fled the storming of the town, taking refuge with the Ordovices and Silures tribes in Wales and becoming a Welsh folk hero for his resistance to Rome. The Roman historian Suetonius and Claudius&#39; triumphal arch state that after this battle the British kings who had been under Cunobelinus’ sons’ control surrendered without further bloodshed, Claudius accepting their submission in Camulodunon.</p><br>
<h3>Roman Fortress and Early Town</h3><br>
<p>As the stronghold of a major tribe in the south-east, Camulodunum held strategic importance.</p><br>
<p>After the legion was withdrawn in c. 49, the legionary defences were dismantled and the fortress converted into a town, with many of the barrack blocks converted into housing. The podium, or foundation of the temple, was incorporated into the Norman castle, and represents "the earliest substantial stone building of Roman date visible in the country". A monumental arch was built from tufa and Purbeck Marble at the western gate out of the town. Tombs lined the roads out of the town, with several belonging to military veterans giving insights into the military units stationed in Britain during the post-Conquest period, such as:</p><br>
<p>The famous tomb of the Thracian cavalryman Longinus Sdapeze, depicting a Thracian horseman on horseback with full armour, in triumph over a cowering Briton. It reads:</p><br>
<p>The tomb of the Centurion Marcus Favonius Facilis from Rome, depicting him in full military dress, is one of the finest examples, and reads:</p><br>
<p>The tomb of an Auxialiary from Gaul:</p><br>
<p>The tomb of another experienced Centurion from Anatolia:</p><br>
<p>By 60-61 the population may have been as high as 30,000.</p><br>
<h3>Iceni Revolt</h3><br>
<p>The city was the capital of the Roman province of Britannia, and its temple (the only classical-style temple in Britain) was the centre of the Imperial Cult in the province. The Roman philosopher Seneca mentioned the temple when he mocked the province for its piety towards the Deified Claudius. The colonia was also initially home to the provincial Procurator of Britain. Aside from the Roman population, the city and surrounding territorium was also home to a large native population. Examples of cooperation between the two groups include the Romano-British Stanway Burials mounds and the warrior graves of native elites from the 50s. These graves represent members of the native aristocracy who have been Romanised.</p><br>
<p>However tensions arose in 60/61 when the Roman authorities used the death of Prasutagus as a pretext for seizing the Iceni client state from his widow Boudica. The Iceni rebels were joined by the Trinovantes around Colonia Victricensis, who held several grudges against the Roman population of the town. These included the seizure of land for the colonia’s veteran population, the use of labour to build the Temple of Claudius, and the sudden recall of loans given to the local elites by leading Romans (including Seneca and the Emperor), which had been needed to allow the locals to qualify for a position on the city council. The Procurator Catus Decianus was especially despised.</p><br>
<p>Tacitus recorded that certain ominous portents occurred in the town prior to the rebellion:</p><br>
<p>As the symbol of Roman rule in Britain the city was the first target of the rebels, with its Temple seen in British eyes as the "arx aeternae dominationis" ("stronghold of everlasting domination") according to Tacitus. He wrote that it was undefended by fortifications when it was attacked with a garrison of only 200 members of the procurator&#39;s guard. He wrote of a last stand at the Temple of Claudius:</p><br>
<p>The rebels destroyed the city and slaughtered its population. Archaeologists have found layers of ash in the site of the city, suggesting that Boudica ordered her rebel army to burn the city to the ground. A relief army consisting of the Legio IX Hispana led by Quintus Petillius Cerialis attempted to rescue the besieged citizens, but was destroyed outside of the town. After the Romans under governor Gaius Suetonius Paullinus finally defeated the uprising, the Procurator of the province moved his seat to the newly established commercial settlement of Londinium (London).</p><br>
<h4>Boudican Destruction Layer</h4><br>
<p>The destruction of the early town by the rebels has left a thick layer of ash, destroyed buildings and smashed pottery and glasswork across the town centre and at the Sheepen river port site outside the NW corner of the town. The destruction layer, also found at Verulamium (St Albans) and Londinium (London), is famous for the charred preservation of artefacts and furniture, Known as the "Fenwick Treasure", it appears to have been buried just prior to the buildings destruction by a victim of the Boudican attack. The layer is important to historians as it is one of the first archaeological contexts in Britain that can be given a definitive date, as well as to archaeologists as it provides a snapshot of artifacts from 60, allowing typologies of finds to be tied into a historical timeline, for example in Samian production. The rubble from the destruction was landscaped during the rebuilding of the town that took place in the years after the revolt.</p><br>
<h2>Colonia Victricensis in the Second and Third Centuries</h2><br>
<p>Following the destruction of the Colonia and Suetonius Paulinus’ crushing of the revolt the town was rebuilt on a larger scale and flourished, growing larger in size than its pre-Boudican levels (to 108 acres/45 ha) despite its loss of status to Londinium, reaching its peak in the Second and 3rd centuries. The town&#39;s official name was Colonia Claudia Victricensis (City of Claudius’ Victory), but it was known colloquially by contemporaries (such as on the monument of Gnaeus Munatius Aurelius Bassus in Rome - see below) as Camulodunum or simply Colonia.</p><br>
<p>The colonia became a large industrial centre, and was the largest, and for a short time the only, place in the province of Britannia where samian ware was produced, along with glasswork and metalwork, and a coin mint. Roman brick making and wine growing also took place in the area. Colonia Victricensis contained many large townhouses, with dozens of mosaics and tessellated pavements found, along with hypocausts and sophisticated waterpipes and drains.</p><br>
<p>The colonia is mentioned by name several times by contemporaries, including in Plinys Natural History, Ptolemys Geography, Tacitus&#39; Annales, The Antonine Itinerary and the Ravenna Cosmography. The 2nd century tomb inscription for Gn. Munatius Bassus in Rome, which describes the name of the town and its Roman citizenship, reads:</p><br>
<h3>Status</h3><br>
<p>The city was one of the few Roman settlements in Britain designated as a Colonia rather than a Municipia, meaning that in legal terms it was an extension of the city of Rome, not a provincial town. Its inhabitants therefore had Roman citizenship. Of the two provincial administrators the senatorial military governor was always located in areas of conflict, whilst the civilian Procurator’s office had moved from Camulodunum to the new port of Londinium sometime around the Boudican Revolt. However the Colonia did retain the Imperial cult centre and priesthood at the Temple of Claudius. The colonia was at the centre of a large territorium containing many villa sites, including an important cluster around the Colne estuary.</p><br>
<h3>Walls</h3><br>
<p>Following the rebuilding of the town after 60/1 new walls and a large defensive ditch were built around the colonia (the first town walls in Britain, predating other such walls in the province by at least 150 years). They were completed by 80, twenty years after the revolt. They were built with two external faces of alternating layers of tile and septaria mudstone containing a core of septaria boulders, with a 10 ft wide and 4 ft deep foundation trench, the whole structure taking up 45,000 cubic metres of stone, tile and mortar. They were 2,800m long and 2.4m thick, and survive up to a height of over 6m in the 21st Century. Later, in around 175-200 a large earth bank was built up against the inner face of the walls. The walls had between 12 and 24 towers and six large gates. Balkerne Gate, in the centre of the Western section of the walls, was the main gate out of the town. It has a large fortified barbican that still stands as Britain’s largest Roman gateway, which incorporated the earlier monumental arch built before the Iceni rebellion and was flanked by two possible temples, one of which may have contained the Venus statuette found during the 1973-76 excavations. Skulls showing signs of decapitation were found in the town ditch in front of the gate, interpreted as executions on public display. The North wall contained two gates, the modern North Gate and Duncan’s Gate, the East wall had the modern East Gate, and the Southern wall had the modern South Gate and Head Gate. Drains were constructed in the wall to allow sewerage out of the colonia.</p><br>
<h3>Streets</h3><br>
<p>The Cardo maximus, the main North-South street, ran between North Gate and Head Gate, whilst the Decumanus Maximus, the main East-West street, ran between Balkerne Gate and East Gate, and have their origins in the Legionary fortresses two main axial streets. They were well paved, had drainage channels and were fronted with houses and shops. Many included footways, a feature that is rare in other Roman British towns. The rest of the colonia was gridded into around forty blocks known as insula, with paved streets and colonnaded paths between. As well as a system of local roads leading to settlements around the colony, Camulodunum was linked to the rest of the Province by several major roads, including Stane Street, Camlet Way, Pye Road and the Via Devana.</p><br>
<h3>Public Buildings</h3><br>
<p>Within the town walls was located the Temple of Claudius in its large temple precinct with a monumental columned arcade. Parts of the temple precinct wall are still visible to the NW of the present castle, jutting out from beneath the Norman bailey rampart. It could accommodate at least 8,000 spectators and maybe up to as many as double that. The structure’s gates are being opened to the public. Several temples and religious monuments in and around the colonia have evidence for the deity honoured by them:</p><br>
<p>A statue of Venus was found in the vicinity of the temple outside of the Balkerne Gate.</p><br>
<p>A statue of Mercury was found at the site of the Gosbecks temple.</p><br>
<p>The Temple at the Colchester Royal Grammar School has several plaques dedicated to Silvanus, including:</p><br>
<p>The largest of the four temples at the Sheepen site has a plaque dedicated to Jupiter:</p><br>
<p>An altar to the SW of the town dedicated to the Suleviae:</p><br>
<p>A Bronze plaque dedicated sometime between 222 and 235 by a Syrian to Mars and the Emperor Imperator Caesar Marcus Aurelius Severus, himself a Syrian:</p><br>
<p>A monument, built by a local artisan Maronius, was dedicated to the "Numinibus Augusti" (Spirit of the Emperor) and Mercury:</p><br>
<p>Marble from many of these public structures has been found, including Purbeck Marble and giallo antico (a rare yellow marble from Tunisia), as well as statutes, inscriptions and plaques. Several other public buildings have been postulated for which evidence is so far lacking, for example depictions on pottery, glasswork and wall plaster from the colonia of gladiators has been suggested as evidence that the town could have possessed an amphitheatre. A mound called "The Mount", which formerly stood in the Abbey grounds, was once thought to have been part of a Roman burial mound, although after the discovery of the Roman Circus just to the south of where it once stood there have been suggestions by Colchester Archaeological Trust that it could have been the remnants of an amphitheatre.</p><br>
<h3>Water Management</h3><br>
<p>The towns streets and walls feature many brick built drains, including several large examples in Castle Park and near St Botolphs Priory. Private baths have been found at some sites, but as yet no public baths have been positively identified.</p><br>
<h3>Houses</h3><br>
<p>Many houses have been found in the colonia during archaeological excavations. Stone founded buildings largely replaced timber ones in the course of the 2nd century, while average house size tended to increase in size up to a peak at around 250. They have painted plaster walls and tiled roofs, many with tessellated mosaic floors, hypocaust systems, private baths and courtyards. Latrine pits, with examples well over a metre deep, have been discovered next to some of the houses. Large houses were also found in the extramural suburbs outside of the town walls, with the Middleborough House beneath the old Cattle Market being the largest, containing many rooms, mosaics and basements. The Beryfield mosaic (of 180/200) from the SE corner of the colonia is the best preserved of the more than 50 mosaics found in the town.</p><br>
<h3>Cemeteries</h3><br>
<p>In keeping with Roman burial customs the cemeteries for adults of the colonia in the First, Second and Third centuries are all located outside of the walls along the main roads out of the town, Some cremation pots have graffito on them, with PVERORVA ("remains of the boys") scratched on one, as do some glass vessels, such as one found with CN.A.ING.A.V.M. scratched on it (presumably the initials of the interred ashes). Later (post-c. 260) burials are inhumations, some in lead coffins decorated with patterns and images of scallop shells, and some with wooden superstructures above and around them. Examples of bustum burials (funerary pyre that is then covered with a mound) have been found, which are rare outside of Italy. Elaborate grave goods accompanied some of the burials. Many fragments of carved tombstones have been found in the cemeteries outside of the town, with several being near complete such as the "Colchester Sphinx". Some of the inscriptions on the tombs are almost fully intact, including:</p><br>
<p>The tomb of a Roman Equites:</p><br>
<p>The tomb of a young man:</p><br>
<p>Other funerary monuments include the large tower-like ossuary containing the remains of cremated individuals and birds of prey, which was found at the junction between the road to London and the road to Gosbecks beneath the modern Colchester Royal Grammar School.</p><br>
<h3>Industry and economy</h3><br>
<h4>Pottery production</h4><br>
<p>Camulodunum was a centre for pottery production, peaking at around 200, and, until c. 250, colour-coated wares. including 37 complete examples. A well-preserved Samian kiln was excavated by archaeologist M.R. Hull near Middleborough, just outside North Gate. It was 8 ft wide, with a 5m flue under a large circular kiln chamber, and had a complex system of ceramic pipes and tubes for regulating the oxidisation of the pottery to produce its distinctive red colour. Several of the potters operating in Camulodunum in the First, Second and Third centuries are identified as immigrants from the Rhine Valley and East Gaul, including the Samian potter Minuso from Trier who also operated in other British towns, Miccio, the mortaria potter G. Attius Marinus and several men called Sextus Valerius. Pottery made in Camulodunum can be found across the East of England, and as far away as Eboracum. One of the most famous examples of locally made pottery is the "Colchester Vase" (c. 200), which depicts combat between gladiators called Memnon and Valentinus.</p><br>
<h4>Other Activities</h4><br>
<p>As well as pottery, ceramics produced in Camulodunum also include a large tile industry, oil lamps and figurines. Glass was produced throughout the Roman period of Camulodunum, including in the late 4th century, Small numbers of tiles were imported from Eccles in Kent by Roman settlements in South-East Britain, including Camulodunum, for a brief time in the First Century, as was Kentish Ragstone for building.</p><br>
<h2>Late Roman Town</h2><br>
<p>The late 3rd century and 4th centuries saw a series of crises in the Empire, including the breakaway Gallic Empire (of which Britain was a part), and raids by Saxon pirates, both of which lead to the creation of the Saxon Shore forts along the East coast of Britain. The town ditch began to silt up from c. 400 onwards. The troubles of the late 3rd century saw the burial of several coin hoards around the town, including a hoard of 1,247 coins found in a grey-ware pot at Hyderabad Barracks.</p><br>
<p>As with many towns in the Empire, the colonia shrunk in size in the 4th century but continued to function as an important town. Although houses tended to shrink in size, with 75% of the large townhouses being replaced by smaller buildings by c. 350, in the period 275 to 325 a weak "building boom" (the "Constantinian renaissance") occurred in the town, with new houses being built and old ones reshaped. Many of the towns mosaics date from this period, including the famous Lion Walk mosaic. Late Roman robber trenches have been found at some sites for removing and salvaging tessalated floors and tiles for reuse in later houses. The pottery industry in the town had declined significantly by 300, but the 4th century did see an increase in the bone-working industry for making furniture and jewellery, and evidence of blown glass making has also been found. Large areas of the Southern part of the town were given over to agriculture.</p><br>
<p>Despite the scaling down of private buildings an increase in the size and grandeur of public buildings occurs in the period 275-400. The Temple appears to have had a large apsidal hall built across the front of the podium steps, with numismatic dating evidence taking the date of the building up to at least 395. A large hall at the Culver Street site, dated 275-325 to c. 400, may have been a large centralised storage barn for taxes paid in kind with grain.</p><br>
<p>Although the Gosbecks Theatre had been demolished by the 3rd century, the theatre at Maidenburgh Street may still have been in use throughout the 4th century. The sunken chambers of the water reservoir system found in Castle Park appear to have become blocked up with debris and dumped rubbish in the 4th century and had gone out of use. The Roman chariot circus was also demolished during the late 4th century.</p><br>
<p>Increases in the number of clipped coins from the 4th century have been interpreted as a breakdown in the Roman monetary economy, with most new Bronze coins ceasing to be introduced in the town c. 395 and silver coins in 402 (however these coins may have remained in circulation long after being minted). For example, the coin sequence at the Butt Road church goes up to around 425, 14 years after Roman rule ended in the province.</p><br>
<p>Late Roman military equipment has been discovered in the town, including an official cingulum militare belt buckle made in Pannonia for Roman frontier units. Alongside Roman military equipment 4th and early 5th century Germanic weaponry has been found alongside Germanic domestic objects in the Late Roman town, which has been interpreted by archaeologist Philip Crummy as perhaps representing Saxon foederati mercenaries living and settling in the town during this period, several decades before the Saxon migrations of the mid to late 5th century.</p><br>
<h3>Christianity in the Late Roman Town</h3><br>
<p>During this period the late Roman church at Butt Road</p><br>
<h2>Sub-Roman Period</h2><br>
<p>The formal collapse of Roman administration in the province occurred in the years 409-411. Activity in the 5th century continued in Camulodunum at a much reduced level, Excavations of the former Goojerat and Hyderabad Barracks in 2004 and 2010 saw the discovery of other pagan 5th century burials with Germanic weapons, nine of which were located in burial mounds surrounded by circular ditches. As well as burials, coin hoards from the late Fourth and early Fifth centuries have been found, including a hoard minted in the reign of Constantine III (reigned 407-411) from Artillery Folly, that are heavily clipped; this clipping must have occurred in the years after they were minted and so would have happened in the 400s (decade). and was first proposed by archaeologist Mortimer Wheeler.</p><br>
<h3>Roman Legacy in Saxon and Early Medieval Colchester</h3><br>
<p>Later dwellings at Culver Street and artifacts from the 7th and 8th centuries are seen as evidence that the shell of the Roman town was still in use into the Saxon period. Archaeology aside, Colchester first explicitly re-enters the written historical record again in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle for 917, the year it was retaken from the Danes by a Saxon army led by King Edward the Elder, who "restored" the borough to English rule. Over 25,000 cubic metres of reused Roman tile and brick was used for the Castle alone. The quarrying of Roman rubble for building material reached a peak in the 12th and 13th Centuries.</p><br>
<p>Several structures from the Saxon and Medieval period incorporated Roman structural remains within their walls and outlines. The Temple of Claudius was a standing ruin until the Normans cleared the superstructure to incorporate the podium into Colchester Castle in the 11th Century. In 2014 the discovery of marble pillars belonging to the Monumental Facade of the Temple precinct was made behind the High Street, with evidence suggesting that they were still standing until the Castle-builders knocked them over to make way for the Castle Bailey. The Normans referred to the Temple as King Coels Palace and to the barbican of Balkerne Gate as Colkyngs Castle, reflecting a myth that continued into the Medieval period, and was recorded in the Colchester Chronicle (written in the 13th or early 14th century at St Johns Abbey), that the Roman town was founded by a warlord called Coel. According to the Medieval legend, which garbles folk-tales and pseudo-historical events together, he was supposedly the father of St Helena, who was married off to Constantius in a bid to get the latter to lift his two-year siege of the town. Their son, Constantine the Great was then supposedly born in the town. St Helena is today the patron saint of Colchester, and the towns coat of arms depict the True Cross and crowns of the Three Kings that she is supposed to have found in Jerusalem. Other examples of Roman remains used in later buildings include several Medieval cellars on the High Street, St Nicholas Church (demolished in the 1950s), which was built on a Roman building and originally incorporated the remains of standing Roman walls, and St Helens Chapel, which was built into the corner of the Roman theatre in the town. A study in the late 1970s by Colchester Archaeological Trust discovered that many of the Medieval property boundaries within Colchesters town centre followed the lines of Roman street frontages and the walls of Roman buildings. This was especially prominent along the High Street, where the Medieval street "frontage of the High Street between St Runwalds Church and Maidenburgh Street has fossilized the imprint of the Roman town underneath...". St Runwald&#39;s Church (demolished in the 19th century) formerly stood in the centre of the High Street market just east of the current Town Hall, and was built into the corner of a junction between two Roman streets. The study concluded that Roman building ruins and old street remains were in some cases used as a template for later property divisions.</p><br>
<p>The name of the town and the River Colne are also a legacy of the Romans. "Colchester" (first appearing in written form in the 10th Century as Colencaester and Colneceastre) is a Saxon name derived from the Latin words Colonia and Castra, with the River Colne also taking its name from Colonia.</p><br>
<p>The Brocken, also sometimes referred to as the Blocksberg, is the highest peak of the Harz mountain range and also the highest peak of Northern Germany; it is located near Schierke in the German state of Saxony-Anhalt between the rivers Weser and Elbe. Although its elevation of 1,141 m is below alpine dimensions, its microclimate resembles that of mountains of about 2,000 m. The peak above the tree line tends to have a snow cover from September to May, and mists and fogs shroud it up to 300 days of the year. The mean annual temperature is only 2.9 &deg;C. It is the easternmost mountain in northern Germany; travelling east in a straight line, the next prominent elevation would be in the Ural Mountains in Russia.</p><br>
<p>The Brocken has always played a role in legends and has been connected with witches and devils; Johann Wolfgang von Goethe took up the legends in his play Faust. The Brocken spectre is a common phenomenon on this misty mountain, where a climber&#39;s shadow cast upon fog creates eerie optical effects.</p><br>
<p>Today the Brocken is part of the Harz National Park and hosts a historic botanical garden of about 1,600 alpine mountain plants. A narrow gauge steam railway, the Brocken Railway, takes visitors to the railway station at the top on 1,125 m.</p><br>
<p>FM-radio and television broadcasting make major use of the Brocken. The old television tower, the Sender Brocken, is now used as hotel and restaurant. It also has an observation deck, open to tourists.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<h3>Location</h3><br>
<p>The Brocken rises over the Harz National Park in the district of Harz, whose main town of Wernigerode lies about 12 kilometres east-northeast of the mountain. The state boundary with Lower Saxony runs past the Brocken some 2 km to the west. At the southeastern foot of the Brocken lies the spa resort of Schierke.</p><br>
<p>Somewhat to the north below the summit of the Brocken is a reservoir, the Brockenteich, constructed in 1744. On or near the mountain are the source areas of the rivers Bode, Ecker, Ilse and Oder. The rounded summit of the Brocken is treeless, but vegetated with dwarf shrubs.</p><br>
<h3>Summit and subpeaks</h3><br>
<p>The highest point on the Brocken reaches an elevation of. Its subpeaks include the Heinrichshöhe, Königsberg and Kleiner Brocken ("Little Brocken").</p><br>
<p>Before 1989 the height of the Brocken was recorded in almost all the relevant maps and books as. A survey of the summit at the beginning of the 1990s based on the current reference system, however, gave the height as just. In order to provide a reference point for the old data, in the mid-1990s granite boulders were set on the highest point of the Brocken, which not only matched the old given height, but exceeded it by about a metre. A bench mark of "1142 m" was recorded on the summit stone. This height on the upper plate refers to the line on the lower plate.</p><br>
<h3>Geology</h3><br>
<p>From a geological point of view the Brocken and its surrounding terrain, the Brocken massif, consists mainly of granite (called Brocken granite), an igneous rock. The granitic plutons of the Harz - the Brocken, Ramberg and Oker plutons - emerged towards the end of the Harz mountain-building phase of the Upper Carboniferous, about 300 million years ago. First, alkaline magma intruded into the overlying sediments, crystallized out and formed gabbro and diorite massifs, such as the Harzburg gabbro. A little later, silica-rich granitic magma rose, some intruding into voids and gaps in the older rocks, but most being created by the melting of existing sediments. On the boundary between granite and host rock, the so-called contact zone, a great variety of transitions may be seen. For example, the summit of the Achtermannshöhe consists of contact-metamorphosed hornfels of the contact zone that, here, lies over the Brocken granite. The subsequent erosion of the Harz mountains that followed the uplifting of the Harz during the Upper Cretaceous saw the disappearance of the protective hornfels summit, thus exposing the granite that had crystallized underground during the Upper Carboniferous. The alleged hardness of Brocken granite is not the reason for the height of the mountain, but the geological fact that it was well protected by its weather-resistant hornfels crest for a long time before erosion set in.</p><br>
<p>Only in recent geological times, since the tertiary period, did the typical, rounded, spheroidal weathering of granite outcrops and granite boulders of the Brocken take place. Such blockfields are very rare in Central Europe outside the Alps and are subject to conservation measures. They originated mainly under periglacial conditions, i.e. during the course of the ice ages, and their retreat. Today&#39;s blockfields of Brocken granite, as well as other rocks in the Harz National Park, particularly in the Oder valley, are therefore at least 10,000 years old. Physical weathering, such as frost shattering, has played a key role in their formation, resulting in giant piles of loosely stacked rocks. In 2006, the granite blockfields of the Brocken, together with 76 other interesting geotopes, were designated as a "National Geotope".</p><br>
<h3>Climate</h3><br>
<p>The Brocken is a place of extreme weather conditions. Due to its exposed location in the north of Germany its peak lies above the natural tree line. The climate on the Brocken is like that of an alpine location or even that of Iceland&#39;s 1,600 – 2,200 m zone. This is due to its short summers and very long winters, with many months of continuous snow cover, strong storms and low temperatures even in summer. The summit, however, does not have an alpine climate, as the average summer temperature is above 10 &deg;C.</p><br>
<p>Due to its significant height difference compared with the surrounding terrain the Brocken has the highest precipitation of any point in northern central Europe, with an average annual precipitation (1961–1990) of 1,814 millimetres. Its average annual temperature is 2.9 °C.</p><br>
<p>The Brocken weather station has recorded the following extreme values:</p><br>
<p>Its highest temperature was 29.0 °C on 20 August 2012.</p><br>
<p>Its lowest temperature was -28.4 °C on 1 February 1956.</p><br>
<p>In 1973 it had 205 days of snow cover.</p><br>
<p>Its greatest depth of snow was 380 cm on 14 and 15 April 1970.</p><br>
<p>Its highest measured wind speed was 263 km/h on 24 November 1984.</p><br>
<p>Its greatest annual precipitation was 2,335 mm in 1981.</p><br>
<p>Its least annual precipitation was 984 mm in 1953.</p><br>
<p>The longest annual sunshine was 2004.5 hours in 1921.</p><br>
<p>The shortest annual sunshine was 972.2 hours in 1912.</p><br>
<p>The Brocken also holds the record for the greatest number of days of mist and fog in a single calendar year in Germany - 330 days in 1958</p><br>
<p>- and has an average of 120 days of snowfall per year.</p><br>
<h3>Flora</h3><br>
<p>The harsh climate of the Brocken makes it a habitat for rare species. The mountain&#39;s summit is a subalpine zone with flora and fauna almost comparable to those of north Scandinavia and the Alps.</p><br>
<p>The Brocken is the only mountain in Germany&#39;s Central Uplands whose summit lies above the treeline, so that only very small spruce grow there and much of it is covered by a dwarf shrub heathland. In the Brocken Garden, established in 1890, flora are nurtured by national park employees; visitors are allowed to view it as part of regular guided tours. The garden does not just display plants from the Brocken, but also high mountain flora from other regions and countries.</p><br>
<p>Amongst the typical species of the Brocken that are rarely if ever found elsewhere in North Germany and which occur above about are the variant of the alpine pasqueflower known as the Brocken flower or Brocken anemone (Pulsatilla alpina subsp. alba), hawkweeds like the Brocken hawkweed (Hieracium negrescens) and the alpine hawkweed (Hieracium alpinum), vernal grasses (Anthoxanthum), the lady&#39;s mantle (Alchemilla), the tormentil (Potentilla tormentilla), the alpine clubmoss (Diphasiastrum alpinum), the lichens, Iceland moss (Cetraria islandica) and reindeer lichen (Cladonia rangiferina). The crowberry is also referred to here as the Brocken myrtle (Brockenmyrte).</p><br>
<p>On the raised bogs around the summit of the Brocken there are e.g. cottongrasses, sundews and the dwarf birch (Betula nana).</p><br>
<h3>Fauna</h3><br>
<p>Several animal species have adapted to the conditions of life on the Brocken. For example, the water pipit (Anthus aquaticus) and the ring ouzel both breed in the area around the summit.</p><br>
<p>The viviparous lizard occurs on the Brocken in a unique, dark-colored variant, Lacerta vivipara aberr. negra. The common frog (Rana temporaria) can also be found here. Insects are very numerous. There are many beetles including ground beetles such as Amara Erratica, and hundreds of species of butterfly. The cabbage white here only produces one generation per year compared with two in the lowlands.</p><br>
<p>Some mammal and bird species that occur here are relics of the ice age, including the northern bat (Eptesicus nils soni), the alpine shrew (Sorex alpinus) and the ring ouzel.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Ascent, construction and use</h3><br>
<p>The first ascent of the Brocken was documented in 1572 by the physician and botanist, Johannes Thal from Stolberg, who in his book Sylva Hercynia described the flora of the mountain area. In 1736 Count Christian Ernst of Stolberg-Wernigerode had the Wolkenhäuschen ("Clouds Cabin") erected at the summit, a small refuge that is still preserved. He also had a mountain lodge built at the southern slope, named Heinrichshöhe after his son Henry (Heinrich) Ernest. The first inn on the Brocken summit was built around 1800.</p><br>
<p>Between 1821 and 1825 Carl Friedrich Gauss used the line-of-sight to the Großer Inselsberg in the Thuringian Forest and the Hoher Hagen mountain near Göttingen for triangulation in the course of the geodesic survey of the Kingdom of Hanover.</p><br>
<p>A measurement carried out by the military staff of Prussia in 1850 found the Brockens height to be at its present level of 1141.1 metres. After the first Brocken lodge had been destroyed by a fire, a new hotel opened in 1862. The Brocken Garden, a botanical garden, was laid out in 1890 by Professor Albert Peter of Göttingen University on an area of 4,600 m&sup2; granted by Count Otto of Stolberg-Wernigerode. It was Germanys first Alpine garden.</p><br>
<p>The narrow gauge Brocken Railway was opened on 27 March 1899. Brocken station is one of the highest railway stations in Germany lying at a height of. Its gauge is. In 1935 the Deutsche Reichspost made the first television broadcast from the Brocken using a mobile transmitter and, in the following year, the first television tower in the world was built on the mountain; carrying the first live television broadcast of the Summer Olympics in Berlin. The tower continued functioning until September 1939, when the authorities suspended broadcasting on the outbreak of World War II.</p><br>
<p>In 1937 the Brocken, together with the Wurmberg, Achtermann and Acker-Bruchberg were designated as the Upper Harz (Oberharz) nature reserve.</p><br>
<p>During an air attack by the USA Air Force on 17 April 1945 the Brocken Hotel and the weather station were destroyed by bombing. The television tower, however, survived. From 1945 until April 1947, the Brocken was occupied by US troops. As part of the exchange of territorial (specified at the Yalta Conference) the mountain was transferred to the Soviet occupation zone. Before the Americans left the Brocken in 1947, however, they disabled the rebuilt weather station and the television tower.</p><br>
<p>The ruins of the Brocken Hotel were blown up in 1949. From 1948 to 1959 part of the Brocken was reopened to tourists. Although a pass was required, these were freely issued. From August 1961 the Brocken, which lay in East Germany&#39;s border zone, immediately adjacent to West Germany, was declared an out-of-bounds area and was therefore not open to the public. Extensive military installations were built on and around the summit was exploited. The security of the area was the responsibility of the border guards of the 7th Schierke Border Company, which was stationed in platoon strength on the summit. For accommodation, they used the Brocken railway station. The Soviet Red Army also used a large portion of territory. In 1987, the goods traffic on the Brocken Railway ceased due to poor track conditions.</p><br>
<p>The Brocken was extensively used for surveillance and espionage purposes. On the summit were two large and powerful listening posts. One belonged to Soviet military intelligence, the GRU and was also the westernmost outpost of the Soviets in Germany; the other was Department III of the Ministry for State Security in the GDR. The listening posts were codenamed "Yenisei" and "Urian". Between 1973 and 1976 a new modern television tower was built for the second channel of the GDR-TV. Today it is used by the public Zweites Deutsches Fernsehen (ZDF) television network. The Stasi (East German secret police) used the old tower until 1985, when they moved to a new building – now a museum. To seal the area, the entire Brocken plateau was then surrounded by a concrete wall, built from 2,318 sections, each one 2.4 tons in weight and 3.60 metres high. The whole area was not publicly accessible until 3 December 1989. The wall has since been dismantled, as have the Russian barracks and the domes of their listening posts. Today the old tower beside the lodge again is home to a weather station of the Deutscher Wetterdienst.</p><br>
<p>Following the fall of the Berlin Wall beginning on 3 December 1989 the Brocken was again open to the public during a demonstration walk. With German reunification there was a gradual reduction in border security facilities and military installations from 1990. The last Russian soldier left the Brocken on 30 March 1994. The Brocken summit was renaturalised at a cost of millions of euros. It is now a popular tourist destination for visitors to the Harz.</p><br>
<p>As a protected area since 1939 and due to the decades of restricted access the unique climate of the Brocken provided outstanding conditions. The massif is partly still covered with primary forest extremely rare in Germany. It provides perfect conditions for endangered and nearly extinct species like the Eurasian lynx, wildcats and capercaillies. The Brocken was therefore declared part of a national park in 1990.</p><br>
<h3>Name and significance</h3><br>
<p>The widespread use of the name "Brocken" did not occur until towards the end of the Middle Ages. Hitherto the region had just been described as the Harz. This was primarily because, until then, the focus had been mining. The first record of a placename that resembles the present name of the mountain goes back, however, to the year 1176 when it is referred to as broke in the Saxon World Chronicle (Sächsische Weltchronik). Another early written reference to the mountain, this time as the Brackenberg, appears in 1490 in a letter from Count Henry of Stolberg. Other early documented names of the Brocken were, in 1401, the Brockenberg, in 1424 the Brocberg, in 1495 mons ruptus (Latin), in 1511 the Brogken and Brockin, in 1531 the Brogken, in 1540 the Brokenberg and, in 1589, the Brackenberg.</p><br>
<p>In Old Saxon-Germanic times, a large portrait of Wodin is supposed to have been found on the Brocken. In addition, animal and human sacrifices were offered by the Saxons to their supreme god, Odin, on the blockfields of the summit until they renounced them as part of their baptismal vows when Christianity spread to the region under Charles the Great.</p><br>
<p>As far as the origin of the name is concerned, there are several interpretations:</p><br>
<p>In the town records (Stadtbuch) of Osterwieck an entry for the Brocken was found in the year 1495 under the Latin name of mons ruptus, which means "broken hill".</p><br>
<p>But the most likely derivation of the name comes from the shape of the mountain as a whole. A brocken in German is a large, shapeless mass. The size of the Brocken may thus have given it its name. Since the term "block" has a similar meaning, this could also be the derivation of its alternative name, the Blocksberg.</p><br>
<p>Another theory holds that the name "Brocken" is derived from bruch, a word used in northern Germany for bog or moor, which commonly used to be spelt as bruoch or brok. It is however doubtful that this fact was primarily responsible for its name. Another possibility is that its name is derived from the fields of boulders strewn over the summit and the slopes of the mountain. This derivation for the name "Brocken" is, however, unlikely because such blockfields are also found on other mountains in the Harz. Moreover, the regions concerned were hardly known at the time when the term was used. Another presumption is based on the reference in a letter written in 1490 by Count Henry of Stolberg-Wernigerode, where he uses the term Brackenberg. However the suggestion that this referred to old, unusable timber, which was called bracken, is disputed.</p><br>
<h2>Tourism</h2><br>
<p>Today a narrow gauge railway, the Brocken Railway, once more shuttles between Wernigerode, Drei Annen Hohne, Schierke and the Brocken. The trains are regularly hauled by steam locomotives.</p><br>
<p>At the summit is the Brockenhaus with a museum on the history of the mountain and the Brocken Garden (a botanical garden), which is managed by the Harz National Park. In addition there are restaurants and the Brocken Hotel, which is run by the Brocken publican (Brockenwirt), Hans Steinhoff. Important publicans in the past included Johann Friedrich Gerlach from 1801 to 1834, Carl Eduard Nehse between 1834 and 1850, who brought out a map of the Brocken in 1849 and the Brocken Register (Brockenstammbuch) in 1850, as well as Rudolf Schade from 1908 to 1927, who considerably increased the repute and the size of guest facilities on the Brocken.</p><br>
<p>The area around the Brocken is especially popular with hikers. The Goethe Way (Goetheweg) is a well known trail that leads to the summit of the Brocken. It is named after Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, who more-or-less followed this route in 1777. Many paths lead to the local towns of Schierke, Braunlage and Sankt Andreasberg. The 100 km long Harz Witches Path also runs from the Brocken eastwards to Thale and westwards via Torfhaus and Altenburg to Osterode. The "Bad Harzburg Devils Path" runs from the Brocken to Bad Harzburg. Mountain bikers also use the trails.</p><br>
<p>From Schierke a metalled road leads to the summit, which is used by horse-drawn wagons, as well as touring and racing cyclists. Because of the situation in the national park, vehicles with internal combustion engines are only allowed with special permission.</p><br>
<p>Worthy of special mention is the bearer of the Badge of Honour of Saxony-Anhalt, Benno Schmidt (born 1932) – also known as Brocken Benno – of Wernigerode, who has climbed the mountain since 1989, almost daily, with more than 7,777 ascents (as of 23 January 2016) and whose feat has been registered in the Guinness Book of World Records.</p><br>
<h2>Sport</h2><br>
<p>Two well-known running events pass over the Brocken: the Ilsenburg Brocken Run (beginning of September, 26 kilometres, of which 12 kilometres uphill, has taken place since the 1920s) and the Brocken Marathon which is part of the Harz Mountain Run with its start and finish south of Wernigerode. Both start in the valley, climb the Brocken and return. The most challenging part in each case is the last four kilometres to the Brocken summit, for which in both races, a separate mountains classification is given. This section is a concrete slab track with a steady incline of about 20% and the runners are exposed above the tree line, often to a sharp, icy wind. Of the just under 1,000 people who usually achieve it, only 50 negotiate this section without stopping to walk.</p><br>
<p>Since 2004, the Brocken Challenge, an ultra marathon 84 kilometres long from Göttingen to the Brocken summit, has been staged in February each year. The proceeds from this event go to charity. The runs are conducted in accordance with the rules of the national park.</p><br>
<p>The 87 kilometre-long "Brocken Climb" from Göttingen to the Brocken has taken place annually since 2003. More than 300 people take part in these two-day hikes in June.</p><br>
<p>In early May each year the Braunschweig-Brocken Ultra Run takes place with 2x75 km legs spread over two days. The participants run from Braunschweig to Schierke, cross the Brocken, overnight in Schierke and run back again the next day. Overall, it is therefore a 150 kilometre race.</p><br>
<h2>Buildings</h2><br>
<h3>Transmission site</h3><br>
<p>Since the 1930s various radio and television transmitters have been erected on the Brocken, see Brocken Transmitter.</p><br>
<h3>Brocken House</h3><br>
<p>Brocken House (Brockenhaus), the modern information centre for the Harz National Park, is located in the converted "Stasi Mosque" (Stasi-Moschee), a former surveillance installation for the Ministry for State Security. The historic antenna equipment in the dome may be visited. Behind the building is checkpoint no. 9 on the Harzer Wandernadel hiking trail network.</p><br>
<h3>Weather station</h3><br>
<p>The extreme weather conditions of the Brocken are of special meteorological interest. From 1836 the Brockenwirt, who also ran the guest house and restaurant, kept meteorological records. The first weather station on the Brocken was built in 1895. Technically poor and too small, it was partially demolished in 1912 and replaced with a large stone construction, the Hellman Observatory, that was not completed until the First World War. In 1917 the academic and nature lover, George Grobe, took over the running of the observation post, his daughter supporting him until his death in 1935. Today&#39;s weather station started life in 1939. Measurements were interrupted at the end of the Second World War as a result of military bombardment, but began again in 1947. On 16 March 2010 the Brocken Weather Station became a climate reference station to provide uninterrupted, long-term climatic observations.</p><br>
<h2>Literary mentions</h2><br>
<p>Goethe described the Brocken in his Faust, first published in 1808, as the center of revelry for witches on Walpurgisnacht (30 April; the eve of St Walpurga&#39;s Day).</p><br>
<p>The Brocken is similarly mentioned in many other literary and musical works based on Faust</p><br>
<p>Another famous visitor on the Brocken, author Heinrich Heine, wrote his book Die Harzreise ("The Harz Journey") published in 1826. He says:</p><br>
<p>The summit register entry Many stones, tired bones, views: none, Heinrich Heine ("Viele Steine, müde Beine, Aussicht keine, Heinrich Heine") is a popular, though unsourced phrase related to the weary ascent and the mostly foggy conditions.</p><br>
<p>The teacher Heinrich Pröhle collected the Brockensagen tales and legends as well as the etymology of the geographic names in the Harz. He carefully examined the Teufelskanzel and the Hexenaltar, mentioned above.</p><br>
<p>Slothrop and Geli Tripping experience the famous Brocken Spectre in Thomas Pynchons novel Gravitys Rainbow, as the Mittelbau-Dora labour camp in the Harz mountains north of Nordhausen from 1943 was the home of the V-2 rocket production. In David Foster Wallace&#39;s Pynchon-influenced Infinite Jest the characters Remy Marathe and Hugh Steeply also experience the Brocken spectre on a ridge in the desert outside Tucson.</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>"Black Sabbath", the first track of the debut album of the early occult rock band Coven, starts with the line "They journeyed far to Brocken Mountain pinnacle".</p><br>
<p>The progressive metal band Fates Warning titled their debut album Night on Bröcken (note the "Heavy metal umlaut"). The title track refers to Witches Sabbath on Walpurgis Night.</p><br>
<p>The song "Born in a Burial Gown" by Cradle of Filth (from the album Bitter Suites to Succubi) contains an allusion to the Brockens history as a witches gathering-place.</p><br>
<p>The indie rock band Liars&#39; album They Were Wrong, So We Drowned is a concept album loosely based on tales of the gatherings of witches on the Brocken as well as witch trials.</p><br>
<p>The novel Cloud Castles by Michael Scott Rohan features the Brocken as the home and body of Chernobog</p><br>
<p>Bibi Blocksberg, a German audio drama for children about a witch, refers to an alternate name for the Brocken (Blocksberg).</p><br>
<p>The Brocken is mentioned in the novel Bald Mountain by Sergej Golovachov.</p><br>
<p>The Brocken is mentioned in episode 546 of the TV anime series Detective Conan.</p><br>
<p>There are two German fictional characters in the anime/manga Kinnikuman who are called Brockenman and Brocken Jr.</p><br>
<p>There is a German black metal band named Brocken Moon.</p><br>
<p>Brocken spectres is the topic of Polish poetic folk band "Na Bani" titled "Brocken" from the album "20 lat z górą".</p><br>
<p>German heavy metal band Edguy mentions Brocken and Walpurgisnacht in their song "Angel Rebellion" from the album Kingdom of Madness.</p><br>
